European forestry and forest products commission
Subcommission on Mediterranean problems
Survey of present-day trends in European forest policy - Review of statements submitted by the Member Countries to the First Session of European Forestry and Forest Products Commission
The essential purpose of the European Forestry and Forest Products Commission is the co-ordination, on a regional basis, of the forest policies of the countries of Europe. At the first meeting of this Commission in July 1948, each of these countries, therefore, submitted a short report giving a general outline of the major trends of its present forest policy.
These reports do not always discuss exactly the same points. A certain amount of variation was apparent in them because the representatives of some countries submitted a rather complete report on the entire forest policy of their respective countries, while others limited themselves to replying to the three main points raised by the Chairman of the Commission, namely: the possibilities of improving present methods of utilization of forest products; the possibility of increasing the production of timber and industrial wood; the prospects for enlarging the area of productive forestlands.
Although the Commission intends later to extend its research to specific points of special interest, it already has before it some interesting and valuable data to study more closely in order to sift out the major trends.
The following summary covers certain points which appeared to be the most striking upon reading these reports.
Forest legislation
In all European countries the Government exerts, at least theoretically some control over national forests as well as over forests belonging to their respective States, districts, villages, and other public au thorities This makes it possible to apply good silvicultural practices forests, and, on the whole, subject them to regular management.
The problem which arises in these countries consequently is in connection with privately owned forests, which almost everywhere constitute a very large portion of the forest area. Some reports mention that their yield is considerably lower than that of forests subject to Government control.
The lines along which European countries have directed their policies in order to solve this problem vary considerably. The 1945 agrarian reform in Hungary brought all forests larger than 57.55 hectares under Governmental ownership and requires all private owners of forests to obtain advance authorization from Government forestry authorities before felling timber on their lands. In other countries such as Switzerland and Denmark, the principle has been long established that the territory will maintain the existing forest cover as a whole and this necessarily means a strict control of all cutting. The Austrian system requires the employment of a qualified forester in privately-owned forests over a certain size.
Although the establishment of a working plan is rarely made obligatory for private forests, many countries, such as Norway, Ireland, etc., control not only the volume of trees felled, but also logging methods in privately-owned forest stands. In 1932 Norway created a special agency devoted solely to the supervision of the privately-owned forests.
To encourage the application of the best silvicultural methods in privately-owned forests, subsidies or low-interest loans are frequently granted to landowners for the purpose of promoting the artificial regeneration of forests following fellings, the reforestation of denuded lands, drainage work, the construction of roads, etc. In 1948 the Swedish Parliament passed an important law to this end. In Finland, similar measures were taken. The Netherlands also grant loans or tax exemption for this purpose. Great Britain and France have evolved an important program which has been given wide publicity in articles and news items. Generally speaking however, except in France, it seems that any special privilege granted to private owners is accompanied by more or less strict control measures.
Many countries have also been faced with the difficult problem of parcelling out privately-owned forest property. Some countries have prohibited the dividing up of land plots. Others favor the formation of co-operatives for the purpose, not only of facilitating the disposal of their products by forest owners but also the application of recommended silvicultural methods.
To summarize briefly modern trends in forest legislation, the idea which has become increasingly current in Europe is that the private owner of forestlands should be held responsible for the proper care of this resource, so essential to national economy, and that, therefore, the control of the State over the management of this resource is justified in return for technical and possibly financial assistance which the State should be prepared to offer such private owners.
Silviculture
(a) Inventories. Many countries are obviously preoccupied with the question of forest inventory-taking. Some of them are at present undertaking the revision of their management plans, which has become so necessary due to the wartime exploitation of European forests. This naturally entails inventory-taking. In Germany, the Occupation Authorities undertook a general inventory in 1946, the results of which have already been submitted to the European Commission. Sweden regularly takes a country-wide inventory every 15 years, and is therefore in the advantageous position of being able to formulate its forest felling policy on the basis of precise data, as is indicated in its report. This is not the ease in many other European countries. However, recognition of the importance of a detailed inventory covering all forest resources in each country seems to be growing more and more evident.
(b) "Monocultures" or single species plantations of softwoods versus mixed forests. With striking unanimity all countries of Central Europe condemn pure species plantations or "monocultures" of softwoods and are seeking to remedy the results of the previous application of such a policy in their own forests. Poland intends to eliminate the use of the clear-cutting method and to substitute in its forests the method of selective felling and restocking, i.e. the "jardinage" system. Czechoslovakia, Austria and Switzerland point out the very grave dangers of establishing softwood "monocultures." Although the representative of the French Zone of Germany is of the opinion that this type of silviculture "achieves the goals it sets for itself perfectly," he qualifies this statement by calling it "abnormal" and recommends "a less regimented type of forestry, the extension of natural regeneration, the continuous practice of thinning out of forests and the establishment of mixed stands." Belgium also mentions that the disadvantages of the clear-cutting method and of homogeneous softwood forests have already been recognized in that country.
The report of the representative of Great Britain stands in direct contradiction to the preceding statements, however; Great Britain's vast reforestation plan revolves upon the use of softwoods. Although to a lesser degree, the statement of the French representative regarding the plantation of softwoods in coppices is also in contradiction to the previous statements.
This is a serious matter, and its effect on current reforestation plans may be extremely significant; it therefore requires the closest study by the Commission.
(c) Insects. Many countries refer to the damage caused by recent insect infestation. The Ips, as well as the Liparis monacha in a more limited area, are obviously the most menacing of these insects. The feet that infection centers coincide precisely with those countries in which the "monoculture" of soft-woods has been developed to the greatest extent, further emphasizes the significance of the question referred to in the previous paragraph. The problems of insect invasions as well as of the propagation of tree diseases are indisputably international problems.
(d) Felling Prospects. All countries, even those which have not been directly affected by the war such as Sweden and Switzerland, stress the definite over-cutting of their forests or express their desire to increase the size of their standing timber resources; this will probably entail a temporary reduction in fellings. However, nearly all express the hope that the measures being taken to counterbalance fellings will make possible the exploitation of a larger volume of wood than was extracted from their national forests in prewar days after a more or less prolonged period of decreased production. France even hopes that if its reforestation plan produces the anticipated results, it will be in a position to increase the present volume of its fellings by 500,000 m³ in 1952.
(e) Reforestation Plans. Almost all countries of Central, Southern and Western Europe have formulated reforestation plans, some of which are extremely important and have already been mentioned.
In some countries, such as the Netherlands, a high value is ascribed to the planting of trees along highways and canals, and in other countries, particularly Hungary, to the planting of windbreaks.
The value of plantations of poplars has been pointed out by several representatives, particularly by the Italian member. This fact fully justifies the work initiated with such excellent results by the International Poplar Commission.
The chief non-European trees which are used for reforestation purposes are the Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Sitka spruce, Picea sitchensis, and several other species obtained from the western part of North America, as well as Larix leptolepis, Japanese larch.
In connection with these reforestation plans special importance is attached to the collection of certified seeds, to the propagation of tree species adapted to their sites and, in general, to problems of forest genetics, upon which the attention of European silviculturists appears to be concentrated at the present time.
Problems relating to soil utilization. Although several other countries have called attention to the extent of their mountain reforestation projects with the specific end in view of flood control, only Italy's report is principally concerned with this very important question, of vital importance for all Southern European countries.
Therefore this report is of special interest not only for the exposition of problems arising in that country, but also in view of the measures being taken to solve these problems.
It was upon the suggestion of the representative of Italy that the European Commission set up a Subcommission on Mediterranean Problems. This Subcommission met in Rome, in December 1948, upon the invitation of the Italian Government, to initiate the study of questions peculiar to this region.
The exploitation of forests and the processing and utilization of forest products. Delegates of European countries represented on the Commission generally appear to be less concerned with these questions than with silvicultural methods, and from their reports, it is not possible to gain a sufficiently complete idea of the situation in these respects.
Although the majority of countries have taken at least indirect measures to control the waste of certain forest products, especially by means of controlled building programs, the rationing of paper consumption, etc., there is no similar trend to control the intermediary stages of utilization of forest products.
Preference is given government-controlled forestry operations in Greece as well as in Hungary. In the latter country, the quality of the yield has been considerably increased, the proportion of construction timber from State forests having risen from the prewar 18 percent to 32 percent in 1947/48. In Denmark, the sale of sawlogs from national forests is limited to concerns which have obtained official authorization and are willing to submit to regulation by the government.
The scarcity of mineral fuels is still apparently the reason why in many countries wood is being used for fuel, although it could be used to better purpose by industry.
Generally speaking, research is directed towards more complete utilization of waste products and of hardwood species for many purposes.
Government forest services. Many national forest services have been or are being reorganized to enable them to cope with the vast tasks which they must accomplish.
Some of these reorganizations are concerned with a greater emphasis on the control of private forests; as for example, the creation of the Office for the Protection of Forests in Norway; others are for the purpose of implementing the new reforestation plans which have been formulated: this applies to the reorganization of the Reforestation Service of Czechoslovakia and the expansion of the Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom. German forest services are being re-established. In addition, there is a tendency in Hungary and Czechoslovakia to entrust special agencies with technical functions, such as logging operations.
However, generally speaking, the reports submitted do not give a sufficiently clear picture either of trends toward the extension of powers entrusted to the forest services, or of the nature of the liaison between these agencies and the agencies directing the economic policies of each country.
Manpower. Finally, there is a marked trend everywhere to study the questions of manpower, particularly in the Northern countries where it is scarce. The problems of output on the job, of training of personnel, of providing living quarters for forest workers, etc., are mentioned in several reports.
The Subcommission on Mediterranean Problems held its first meeting at the European Regional Office of FAO in Rome from 13 to 17 December 1948.
The meeting was opened by Antonio Segni, Italian Minister of Agriculture and Forestry. The following countries were represented at this conference: France (Metropolitan France, Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco), Italy, Greece, and the United Kingdom (Cyprus). Yugoslavia and Israel sent observers.
Professor Aldo Pavari, Director of the Forestry Research Station at Florence, was unanimously elected Chairman. Jean Paul Challot Conservator of Forests in Morocco, was nominated Vice-Chairman and R. R. Waterer, Conservator of Forests in Cyprus, and Christos Moulopoulos, Professor of Silviculture at the Salonika University, were named rapporteurs.
The Subcommission decided to concentrate on the following:
(1) importance of the land-use problem and recommendations for securing international cooperation;(2) definition of geographical regions to be included in the Subcommission's studies;
(3) technical problems, principally (a) species and types of trees to be introduced, (b) measures against fires, plant diseases, and insects, and (e) reforestation and soil conservation techniques.
After the Subcommission had discussed the general principles to be followed in the three fields, it referred these questions to three working groups for more detailed study and for the drafting of appropriate recommendations.
The Subcommission heard a paper read by Professor Giordano on the better use of forestry products in the Mediterranean Region and requested him to present a formal proposal for its consideration.
The Subcommission adopted the following reports of the working groups and the resolutions on better use of forest products.
REPORT OF WORKING GROUP I
Land - Use Problem
The destruction of forest growth in the Mediterranean region has been followed by rapid deterioration of the soil and disturbance of normal moisture relationships. These conditions are particularly alarming in countries where population is increasing.
Despite certain variations due to local conditions, the forests in the Mediterranean countries play several important roles common throughout the area. Among these the Subcommission considers two as outstanding: first, protecting the soil and regulating stream flow; and second, providing local populations with timber, fuel, and other forest products. The relative importance of these two roles varies, but soil protection is of primary importance in most areas.
The bad state of existing forests is due in large measure to unrestricted grazing, particularly by goats and sheep. The Subcommission recognizes that this condition raises the whole problem of a fundamental change in the way of life of large sections of the populations. Remedial measures can only be effected through intimate co-ordination of all governmental and communal authorities connected with forestry, agriculture, pasturage, water engineering, and social welfare. Combined planning is essential, and forest improvement and reforestation, as the first step in soil restoration and conservation, must start in small demonstration areas. The success of these experiments should encourage further expansion over larger areas.
Two fundamental requirements must be met if the problem of rehabilitation of Mediterranean forests is to be approached with any hope of successful solution. First, adequate finances must be available throughout the rehabilitation period; and second, there must be social and economic stability. Forestry measures must be long-term measures and it is obviously futile to embark on a program at a time when upheavals beyond the control of the authorities concerned might stop the work before completion and destroy the whole effort.
It is essential for governments to formulate and declare their forest and pasturage policies to ensure continuity of land use and to enable effective application of such policies by the executive officers.
The Subcommission believes that the inauguration of one or more demonstration projects in the improvement of land use from unrestricted pasturage to an integrated economy, paying due attention to the role of forests and tree crops and to soil restoration and conservation generally, would be a valuable project for concerted international action under the auspices of FAO. The capital investment required for the rehabilitation of selected areas would not be large. The main portion could be included in the budgets of the participating countries. The Subcommission is of the opinion that such demonstration projects would fall within the categories of undertakings for which the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development grants loans to cover part of the capital investment.
The Subcommission therefore recommends that FAO
(1) explore with interested governments the possibility of selecting mutually satisfactory areas for demonstration;(2) obtain the agreement of such countries to provide financial, legislative, and administrative support as required including arrangements for investigation and research by agencies interested in any land-use problems arising in such areas; and
(3) approach the appropriate international authority to secure such additional funds as may be required to complete the financing of such projects.
WORKING GROUP II
Delimitation of Mediterranean Area
The Subcommission proposed that, instead of defining the Mediterranean countries, the regions over which the action of the Subcommission is to extend be delimited.
It appeared advisable to list the countries interested in the problem through either all or part of their territory: Portugal, Spain, France, Italy, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Greece, Bulgaria Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and the Mediterranean Islands.
Countries having similar ecological conditions, such as the United States (California), U.S.S.R. (South Crimea), South Africa, and Australia, were added to the list.
The Subcommission considered it necessary to give a definition of Mediterranean countries. It seemed that two regions ought to be delimited: (a) the Mediterranean area proper, and (b) the transitional regions.
The Subcommission proposed the following methods to differentiate the subdivisions of the two aforesaid groups: (a) a working method based on climatic factors; (b) a working method based on biological factors; and (e) an ecological method combining all environmental factors.
The method which should give the best results is the one based on the aggregate ecological factors.
This synthesis may be set forth by superimposing simple cards on an outline map, each card representing one of the important factors of the environment.
The main characteristics of the method are indicated in the report of Mr. Gaussen.
This cartography gives the synthesis of the environmental conditions by color and the mode of placing the color represents the present plant cover as it has been modified by man. This present condition is only one of the economic possibilities of the environment, the only permanent element independent of man.
The Subcommission called the attention of the FAO divisions engaged in agricultural and pastoral economy and soil conservation to the importance of drafting a map which would illustrate statistical data of all kinds and which could be based on the 1/1,000,000 international map, without excluding other scales.
This map would clearly show the results of a general enquiry on the present plant resources of the world and the possibilities of changing this present state.
This ecological work would show the regions of the world where the environment is biologically analogous, and this would provide scientific bases for testing exotic plant species of economic importance.
The making of a world map therefore would appear to be particularly fruitful. It would also permit a more precise knowledge of the field of action of the Subcommission in Mediterranean countries and in other parts of the world.
WORKING GROUP III
Technical Measures
Fire Control. After hearing the reports on forest fires, the Subcommission requested that forest services and institutes for forestry research turn their attention to the early study of: (a) broadleaved species capable of acting as a check to the spread of fire in forests; (b) the possibility of establishing groves of fruit trees in order to interest the local inhabitants in the importance of taking part in fire control; and (c) appropriate means of educating the public in order to limit the damage done by campers and tourists.
The Subcommission requests the forest services of the countries concerned to exchange through the intermediary of the secretariat all documentation on present means of forest fire detection and control.
Study on Varieties. The Subcommission:
(1) recommended that the competent authorities of all countries concerned set up a forest seed testing service;(2) recommended that the forest services of the different Mediterranean countries send to the corresponding forestry research institutes identification cards on all stands of forest species which seem to be exceptional types, either because of particular characteristics or because of unusual ecological conditions; and that the forest services adopt as an example the Libro Nazionale dei Boschi da Seme kept by the Forestry Experiment Station and the Institute of Silviculture of the University of Florence, Italy, in agreement with FAO;
(3) recommended that the forest research institutes of these countries include in their program a more thorough investigation of these types, their propagation by grafting or cuttings, particularly in regard to the poplar, and the creation of new types by hybridization; and that they interchange - within the plan of the International Union of Forest Research Institutes and the International Poplar Commission - the documentation which each will have centralized, as well as specimens of types of possible interest elsewhere;
(4) requested the governments concerned to consider the possibility of granting to their forest research institutes the funds required for carrying out these investigations.
Plant Diseases. After hearing reports on the spread of plant diseases and particularly on the present development in chestnut groves of Endothia parasitica which constitutes a very serious danger to the world, the Subcommission passed a resolution that the countries concerned make investigations and report to the secretariat all localities in regions formerly free from attack, where the disease appears, and that in the contaminated zones, the specimens which seem to be resistant to attack be located and studied.
It also requested FAO to encourage and support the research work undertaken on this disease by the Italian Government and to sponsor the establishment of a National Chestnut Center, in liaison with the proposed International Chestnut Commission which was endorsed by the Fourth Session of the FAO Conference.
It further requested FAO to assist in reinforcing and unifying frontier plant pathology services within the general measures already advocated for preventing and checking the spread of plant diseases.
Reforestation and Soil Restoration. Having heard an exchange of views on the technical problems of reforestation and soil restoration, and realizing that it was impossible to enter into a detailed comparison of the different methods employed, the Subcommission:
(1) recommended that governments instruct their technical services and forest research institutes (a) to carry out investigations on the control of surface erosion and gully erosion and to consider reforestation not as a purely economic problem but as a means of soil and water conservation; (b) to limit reforestation proper to purely forest land and to apply to land suitable for other uses soil restoration practices based on the same principle of protecting slopes and regulating stream flow; (c) before beginning reforestation work, to study the ecological conditions of the site, the possibilities of regeneration of the forests to be established, and the construction of a network of logging roads to permit future exploitation;(2) pointed out that, in view of the progressive increase in population in Mediterranean countries, soil conservation and restoration are of special importance. It therefore recommended that governments allocate to their forest services sufficient funds for the rapid extension of their investigations and the necessary execution of their projects.
MOTION ON BETTER UTILIZATION OF FOREST PRODUCTS
The Subcommission calls the attention of all the Mediterranean countries to the necessity of carrying out systematic investigations into the technological aspects of wood increment or other production, whether in new plantations or in natural forests about which little as yet is known; and recommends that FAO provide effective support in order that the results obtained in the most important cases may be assembled, studied, and made known to all countries.
Among the technological problems to be studied, the Subcommission mentioned: (a) the practice of tapping the Mediterranean pines and its effect on the characteristics of the wood, timber output, seed production, etc.; (b) the possible uses of eucalyptus wood; (c) the characteristics of the wood of central European or exotic conifers cultivated in the Mediterranean regions; and (d) improvement of cork production.
