APPENDIX A/ANNEXE A
List of Delegates and Observers/Liste des délégués et observateurs

Benin/Bénin

ADEGBITE, Toussaint
Chef du Service
Pêches Continentales
Direction des Pêches
Ministère du Développement Rural
B.P. 383
Cotonou

Botswana

NENGU, Shaft M.
Ag. Senior Fisheries Officer
Ministry of Agriculture
Private Bag 0032
Gaborone

MASUNDIRE, Hillary
Department of Biological Sciences
Private Bag 0022
Gaborone
Fax: (267) 356591

Burkina Faso

TRAORE, Alamoussa Cheick
Directeur des Pêches
Ministère de l'Environnement et Tourisme
03 B.P. 7044
Ouagadougou

Burundi

KANYARU, Roger
Directeur du Département de la Pêche et Pisciculture
Ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage
B.P. 1850
Bujumbura

BASHIRWA, Fidèle
Conseiller au Département de la Pêche et Pisciculture
Ministère de l'Agriculture et de l'Elevage
B.P. 1850
Bujumbura

Cameroon/Cameroun

KOUAM, Jean
Chef de Service de l'Aquaculture
Ministère de l'Elevage, des Pêches et des Industries Animales
DIRPEC - MINEPIA
Yaoundé
Fax: (237) 221405

FOLACK, Jean
Head of Research Centre for Fisheries and Oceanography
P.M.B 77
Limbe
Fax: (237) 420312 or 332376

Central African Republic/République Centrafricaine

KAIMBA, Barthelemy
Chef Adjoint
Volet Pisciculture/Pêche
Ministère du Développement Rural
B.P. 863
Bangui
Fax: (236) 813990

Chad/Tchad

Congo

BITOUMBA, André
Enseignant/Chercheur
Ministère des Eaux et Forêts et de la Pêche
Direction Générale de la Pêche
B.P. 1650
Brazzaville

Côte d'Ivoire

DOUMBIA, Mamadou
Sous-Directeur des Pêches
Ministère de l'Agriculture et Ressources Animales
B.P. V 19
Abidjan
Fax: (225) 218054

AMA, Adingra Antoinette
Attachée de Recherche
Centre de Recherches Océanologiques
Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche
Scientifique
B.P. V 18, Abidjan
Fax: (225) 351155

DJOBO, Anvra Jeanson
Sous-Directeur de l'Aquaculture
Ministère de l'Agriculture et Ressources Animales
B.P. V 19
Abidjan

KABA, Nasséré
Chargé de Recherche
Centre de Recherches Océanologiques
Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche
Scientifique
B.P. V 18, Abidjan
Fax: (225) 351155
E-mail: [email protected]

Egypt/Egypte

SAAD, Massoud
Professor, Alexandria University
Oceanography Department
Faculty of Science
Moharem Bey, 21511 Alexandria
Fax: (203) 4911794

SALEH, Hamed
Head of Pollution Department
National Institute of Oceanography
Alexandria

Eritrea/Erythrée

GEBREAMLAK, Girmay
Senior Technician
Ministry of Marine Resources
P.O. Box 923
Asmara

Ethiopia/Ethiopie

MENGISTU, Tarekegn
Division Head
Fisheries Resources Development Department
Ministry of Agriculture
P.O. Box 62435
Addis Ababa (on study leave)

GETINET, G. Tsadik
Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
Development and Protection Team Leader (MONRDEP)
Ministry of Natural Resources, Development and Environmental Protection
Addis Ababa

ALEM, Merbrat
Head
Fisheries Resources Development Department
Ministry of Agriculture
P.O. Box 21651
Addis Ababa

Gabon

Gambia/Gambie

DARBOE, Famara S.
Senior Fisheries Officer
Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
6, Marina Parade
Banjul

Ghana

BINEY, Charles
Ag. Director
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
Institute of Aquatic Biology
P.O. Box 38
Achimota, Accra
Fax: (233 21) 777655

ABBAN, Eddie Kofi
Head of Fisheries Research Division
Institute of Aquatic Biology
P.O. Box 38
Achimota, Accra
Fax: (233 21) 777655

Guinea/Guinée

CAMARA, Amadou
Chef Service Environnement de la Société Nationale d'Electricité
Ministère de l'Energie et de l'Environnement
B.P. 322
Enelgui-Garafiri, Conakry
Fax: (224) 411751

CAMARA, Sekou
Chargé de Recherche
Centre National des Sciences Halieutiques de Boussoura
Ministère de la Pêche et de l'Aquaculture
B.P. 3738/39
Conakry

Kenya

JUMBE, James
Lecturer
Zoology Department
Kenyatta University
Ministry of Education
P.O. Box 43844
Nairobi
Fax (254 2) 810759

WAFULA, Mathias
Senior Aquaculturist
Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife
P.O. Box 26
Sagana

ASILA, Andrew Onyach A.
Research Officer
Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI)
P.O. Box 1881
Kisumu

OGARI, James
Deputy Director (Inland Waters)
Ministry of Research, Technical Training and Technology
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Institute (KMFRI)
P.O. Box 1881
Kisumu

NEVEJAN, Nancy
Project Manager (KBJP)
Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Institute
P.O. Box 1881
Kisumu

Lesotho

Madagascar

Malawi

AMBALI, Aggrey
Lecturer in Fisheries Biology
Chancellor College
University of Malawi
P.O. Box 280
Zomba
Fax: (265) 522046

MALUWA, Alfred
Ag. Project Manager
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 700
Mzuzu
Fax: (265) 730307

CHIMATIRO, Sloans
Fisheries Research Officer
National Aquaculture Centre
Ministry of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 44
Domasi
Fax: (265) 522397

NSIKU, Edward
Fisheries Officer
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 206
Zomba

HARA, Mafaniso Michael
Principal Fisheries Officer
P.O. Box 47
Mangolhi

BANDA, Moses
Fisheries Research Officer
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Forestry and Natural Resources
P.O. Box 27
Monkey Bay

KAUNDA, Emmanuel
Lecturer in Aquaculture
Bunda College
University of Malawi
P.O. Box 219
Lilongwe
E-mail: [email protected]

NG'OMBE, Edward Lapani
Assistant Chief Fisheries Officer
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Natural Resources
P.O. Box 593
Lilongwe

Mali

TOUNKARA, Samba Bocary
Chef
Division Pêche et Pisciculture
Direction Nationale des Eaux et Forêts
Ministère du Développement Rural et de l'Environnement
B.P. 275
Bamako

Mauritius/Maurice

Niger

Nigeria/Nigéria

SAGUA, Vincent Ozugbe
Director (STP)
NASENI, Lagos
c/o Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
P.M.B 135, Abuja

SHIMANG, Gogwin Ngwa
Deputy Director of Fisherie (Aquaculture)
Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
P.M.B 135
Gharki, Abuja

AYINLA, Olajide
Assistant Director/Centre Manager
African Regional Aquaculture
Centre/NIOMR
P.M.B 5122
Aluu, Port Harcourt
Fax: (234 1) 2617530/2619517

EZENWA, Bernard
Assistant Director (Aquaculture)
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research
P.M.B 12729
Lagos

Rwanda

Senegal/Sénégal

CISSE, El-Hadji
Chef de Division
Direction des Pêches
Ministère de la Pêche et Transports Maritimes
B.P. 289
Dakar

BOUSSO, Tidiane
Chercheur
CRODT/ISRA
Ministère de l'Agriculture
B.P. 2241
Dakar
Fax: (221) 324307
E-mail: [email protected]

Sierra Leone

BANGURA, Alpha Abdul
Fisheries Officer
Department of Fisheries and Marine
Resources
P.M.B 435
Marine House
Freetown

Somalia/Somalie

Sudan/Soudan

ALI, Mohamed El-Tahir
Associate Research Professor
Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Animal Health
P.O. Box 1489
Khartoum

HASSAN, Mohamed Khair
Director
Fisheries Administration
Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources
P.O. Box 12
Al-Shagara

SAEED, Osman Mohamed
Director
Fisheries Research Centre
P.O. Box 1489
Khartoum

Swaziland

Tanzania/Tanzanie

MAEMBE, Thomas Wanyika
Director of Fisheries, Fisheries Division
Ministry of Tourism, Natural Resources and Environment
P.O. Box 2462
Dar-Es-Salaam

KATONDA, Kaitira Ibrahim
Centre Director
Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute
Kigoma Centre
P.O. Box 90
Kigoma
Fax: (255) 695 4458

Togo

DENKE, Marius A.
Directeur de l'Elevage et des Pêches
Ministère du Développement Rural de l'Environnement et du Tourisme
B.P. 4041
9 avenue des Nimes, Lomé

Uganda/Ouganda

ORACH-MEZA, Faustino L.
Commissioner for Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries
P.O. Box 4
Entebbe

ETOT, John Peter
Principal Fisheries Officer
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Fisheries
P.O. Box 102
Entebbe

Zaire/Zaïre

Zambia/Zambie

MAGUSWI, Charles Theodore
Assistant Director
(Aquaculture)
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Food and Fisheries
P.O. Box 350100
Chilanga
Fax: (260 1) 278418

AARNINK, Nette
Fisheries Extension and Development Advisor
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
P.O. Box 740005
Nchelenge

CHANDA, Ben
Principal Fisheries Research Officer
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
P.O. Box 720047
Samfya

NGULA, Evans Simui
Fisheries Research Officer
Department of Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries
P.O. Box 350100
Chilanga

TICHELER, Henne
Fisheries Research Advisor
Fisheries Department
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries
P.O. Box 720047
Samfya

Zimbabwe

MTSAMBIWA, Morris Zororai
Senior Ecologist
L.K.F.R.I
P.O. Box 75
Kariba

SANYANGA, Rudo Angela
Senior Ecologist
L.K.F.R.I
P.O. Box 75
Kariba

KWARAMBA, Rachel
Senior Ecologist
Department of National Parks and Wildlife
P.O. Box 636
Kwe Kwe

CHIMBUYA, Samuel
Chief Fisheries Officer
Ministry of Environment and Tourism
P.O. Box CY 140
Causeway, Harare

MARSHALL, Brian
Professor
University of Zimbabwe
P.O. Box MP 167
Mount Pleasant, Harare
Fax: (263 4) 333407

MAGADZA, Christopher H.D.
Professor/Director
University of Zimbabwe
P.O. Box MP 167
Harare

MANDIMA, Jimmiel
Research Fellow
University of Zimbabwe
U.L.K.R.S
P.O. Box 48
Kariba
Fax: (263) 61 2707

MUTSEKWA, Sophia
Senior Ecologist
Ministry of Environment and Tourism
P.O. Box BE 60
Belvedere
Harare
Fax: (263 4) 724914

CHIMOWA, Munyaradzi
Fisheries Specialist
Ministry of Agriculture
P.O. Box CY 639
Causeway
Harare

MHLANGA, Wilson
Ecologist
Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute
Ministry of Environment and Tourism
P.O. Box 75
Kariba
Fax: (263) 612938

CHIFAMBA, Portia
Ecologist
Lake Kariba Fisheries Research Institute
Department of National Parks
P.O. Box 75
Kariba

BINALI, Wellington
Fisheries Extension Specialist
Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development
P.O. Box CY 639
Causeway
Harare

NOBBS, Christopher
Chief Specialist (Livestock)
AGRITEX
Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Water Development
P.O. Box CY 639
Causeway
Harare

ESOU SHONHIWA, Esou
Fisheries Officer
AGRITEX
P.O. Box CY 639
Causeway
Harare

EVANS, Ronard
Director
Mazvikadei Fish Farm
Tilapia Lodge
P.O. Box 97
Banket

CHIUTA, Tabeth M.
Wetlands Programme Coordinator
IUCN - ROSA
P.O. Box 745
Harare

OBSERVERS FROM MEMBER NATIONS NOT MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE/OBSERVATEURS D'ETATS MEMBRES NE SIEGEANT PAS AU COMITE

Algeria/Algérie

SAMSON, Fatiha
Enseignant/Chercheur
Laboratoire Biologie Ecologie
ISN - USTHB
B.P. 32
El-Alia, 16111 Algiers
Fax: (213) 2606598

France

LAE, Raymond
Chercheur
Ministère de la Recherche et de la Coopération, ORSTOM
B.P. 70
29280 Plouzane, France
Fax: (33 98) 224514
E-mail: [email protected]

MOREAU, Jacques
Professeur
Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse
c/o ENSAT
145 Avenue de Muret
31076 Toulouse
Fax: (33) 61423029
E-mail: [email protected]

Italy/Italie

UGOLINI, Roberto
Biologist
CIRSPE
Via de 4141 B'oro 21
00186 Roma
Fax: (39 6) 5412300

Germany

SCHOLZ, Uwe
Project Coordinator
MAGIFAS
P.O. Box 206
Zomba
Malawi
Fax: (265) 522397

Japan

MIHAKU, Toshio
Expert
Japan International Cooperation Agency
Bunda Agriculture College
University of Malawi
Lilongwe
Malawi

Mozambique

PEGADO, Antonio
Research Officer
Department of Fisheries
P.O. Box 4603
Maputo

CARRILHO, Maria Do Carmo
Head
Fish Culture Department
Ministry of Agriculture
Praca Dos Herois
C.P. 1406
Maputo

Netherlands

VAN ZWIETEN, Paul A.M.
Fisheries Biologist
SNV
P.O. Box 740005
Nchelenge
Zambia

VANDELANNOOTE, Alain
Head
Limnology Lab
B.P. 1920
Bujumbura
Burundi

Sweden

ANDREASSON, Arne
Division Director
National Board of Fisheries
P.O. Box 423
S-40126 Goteborg

REPRESENTATIVES OF UNITED NATIONS SPECIALIZED AGENCIES AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS/REPRESENTANTS DES INSTITUTIONS SPECIALISEES DU SYSTEME DES NATIONS UNIES ET D'AUTRES ORGANIZATIONS INTERNATIONALES

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (U.N.E.C.A)

LEMERCIER, Philippe
Chief of Fisheries Section, E.C.A
P.O. Box 3005
Africa Hall, Addis Ababa
Ethiopia
Fax: (251) 1 51 46 82

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

SCHNEIDER, Gerhart
Programme Officer
P.O. Box 30552
Nairobi
Kenya
Fax: (2542) 624249
E-mail: [email protected]

International Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)

BRUMMET, Randa
Project Director, ICLARM
P.O. Box 229
Zomba, Malawi
Fax/Tel.: (265) 522733

International Foundation for Science/Fondation Internationale pour les Sciences (IFS)

FUCHS, Richard
Scientific Secretary
International Foundation for Science
Grevtorecatan 19
S-114 38 Stockholm

KAUTSKY Nils
Professor
Department of Systems Ecology
Stockholm University
S-106 91 Stockholm
Fax: (46 8) 158417

BERG, Hakan
Stockholm University
Department of Systems Ecology
S-106 91 Stockholm
Fax: (46 8) 158417
E-mail: [email protected]

OBSERVER FROM A NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATION/OBSERVATEUR D'UNE ORGANIZATION NON-GOUVERNEMENTALE

DECHE, Eric Mwasaha Simeon
Conservation Educationist
Wildlife Clubs of Kenya
P.O. Box 80591
Mombasa, Kenya

FAO FISHERIES DEPARTMENT/DEPARTEMENT DES PECHES DE LA FAO
- Headquarters/Siège

Viale delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy/Italie

DADA, B.F.
Director/Directeur
Fishery Policy and Planning Division/Division des Politiques Halieutiques et de la Planification

KAPETSKY, J.
Senior Fishery Resources Officer (Inland Fisheries)/Spécialiste Principal des Ressources Halieutiques (Pêches Continentales)
Fishery Resources Division

NAEVE, Heiner
Senior Fishery Resources Officer (Environment)/Spécialiste Principal des Ressources Halieutiques (Environnement)
Fishery Resources Division

DOEFF, Michael
Senior Project Operations Officer
Fisheries Operations Division

BONZON, Alain
Fishery Planning Analyst
Fishery Policy and Planning Division

REMANE, Katja
Fishery Resources Officer
Fishery Resources Division

FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR AFRICA/BUREAU REGIONAL DE LA FAO POUR L'AFRIQUE

P.O. Box 1628
Accra
Ghana

WEST, W. Q-B.
Senior Regional Fisheries Officer

Field Staff/Terrain

HAIGHT, Boyd A.
Senior Aquaculturist
ALCOM
P.O. Box 3730
Harare, Zimbabwe
Fax: (263 4) 736847
E-mail: [email protected]

VAN DER MHEEN, Henk
Aquaculturist
ALCOM
P.O. Box 3730
Harare
Zimbabwe

NILSSON, Henrik
Socio-Economist/Associate
Professional Officer
ALCOM
P.O. Box 148
Morogoro
Tanzania

GAIGER, Michael Charles Lloyd
Fisheries Legislation
FAO Consultant

HOREMANS, Benoit
Senior Fisheries Planning Adviser
IDAF
c/o FAO
B.P. 1369
Cotonou, Benin

SECRETARIAT

Host Government/Gouvernement hôte

MUTSEKWA, Sophia
CIFA Liaison Officer

Secretary of the Committee/Secrétaire du Comité

WEST, W.Q.-B.

Technical Secretary of the Seminar/Secrétaire technique du séminaire

REMANE, Katja

Translator/Traductrice

VALLIN, Daniele
FAO Headquarters
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy

Interpreters/Interpretes

AKPAWU, Komla WOLALI
15, Mold Crescent
Avondale
Harare
Zimbabwe

AMURI, Lucas
P.O. Box 54708
Nairobi
Kenya
Fax: 254-2-562214

SMITH-KEHE, Rosemary
P.O. Box 131
Ruwa
Zimbabwe

MUHINDI, J
P.O. Box 56061
Nairobi
Kenya
Fax: 254-2-214240

Secretaries/Secrétaires

BRIGHT-DAVIES, Angela J.
FAO Regional Office for Africa
P.O. Box 1628
Accra
Ghana

BORGHESI, Sylviane
FAO Headquarters
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy

GAPARA, Farai T.
L.K.F.R.I
P.O. Box 75
Kariba
Zimbabwe

MAHOMED, Soriya
c/o ALCOM
P.O. Box 3730
Harare
Zimbabwe

APPENDIX B/ANNEXE B
Agenda/Ordre du jour

1. Opening of the Session

2. Election of Chairman and Vice-Chairmen

3. Adoption of the agenda and arrangements for the Session

4. Seminar on African Inland Fisheries, Aquaculture and the Environment

5. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing with Special Reference to Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture

6. Fisheries Research needs in Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture in Africa

7. Intersessional Activities:

   1. Follow-up Actions to the Eighth Session of CIFA

   2. Directory of African capacities in fisheries

   3. Recommendations of the Subsidiary Bodies of the Committee

8. Review of FAO Field Programme in Inland Fisheries of Africa

9. Collaboration with other organizations concerned with inland fisheries development in Africa

10. Summary of major conclusions and recommendations of the Seminar on African Inland Fisheries, Aquaculture and the Environment

11. Proposals for the major topic for discussion at the Tenth Session of CIFA

12. Any other matters

13. Date and Place of the Tenth Session

14. Adoption of the Report

1. Ouverture de la session

2. Election du Président et du Vice-Président

3. Adoption de l'ordre du jour et organisation de la session

4. Séminaire sur l'environnement, les pêches continentales et l'aquaculture en Afrique

5. Code de conduite pour une pêche responsable eu égard notamment aux pêches continentales et à l'aquaculture

6. Besoins de la recherche sur les pêches continentales et l'aquaculture en Afrique

7. Activités entre les sessions:

   1. Suite donnée à la huitième session du CPCA

   2. Répertoire des capacités africaines dans le domaine des pêches

   3. Recommandations des organes subsidiaires du Comité

8. Examen du Programme de terrain de la FAO sur les pêches continentales en Afrique

9. Collaboration entre la FAO et d'autres organisations s'intéressant au développement des pêches continentales en Afrique

10. Résumé des principales conclusions et recommandations du séminaire sur l'environnement, les pêches continentales et l'aquaculture en Afrique

11. Propositions concernant le thème principal de la dixième session du CPCA

12. Autres questions

13. Date et lieu de la dixième session

14. Adoption du rapport

APPENDIX C/ANNEXE C
List of Documents/Liste des documents

APPENDIX D
Summary Report of Working Sessions of the Seminar on African Inland Fisheries, Aquaculture and the Environment

1. INTRODUCTION

The conservation and planned utilization of our natural resources represents one of the major challenges facing mankind today. This is mainly due to the realization that human activities are changing our environment in many ways, some of which we do not even understand. In the past era of low technology and low population pressure, the environment maintained its balance through natural biochemical recycling and self-purification processes. Unfortunately, through our present consumption of energy, exploitation of living and non-living resources and agricultural practices, the natural environment is subject to a lot of harm.

During the last three decades for instance, extensive developmental activities have taken place almost exclusively in the vicinity of inland and coastal waters because of the traditional amenities provided by these aquatic environments. The most important developments include transport, recreation, waste disposal and fisheries.

In many African countries, the inland fisheries sector and small-scale aquaculture play an important role in terms of low-cost animal protein supply, income generation and rural and urban employment. However, in addition to their use for fisheries, inland waters are crucial for all development activities such as agriculture, industry, power generation, transport, waste disposal, etc. All these activities have different requirements on water use and quality, and need to be carefully balanced for the elaboration of any development plan. Therefore, coordination with other sectors is essential for a proper management of inland fisheries.

2. WORKING SESSION 1: POLLUTION AND DEGRADATION OF THE AFRICAN AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT AND IMPACTS ON INLAND FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE

In order to identify the major interactions between inland fisheries, aquaculture and the environment and the type of management required to prevent further environmental degradation and resource-use conflicts, the CIFA Seminar on African Inland Fisheries, Aquaculture and the Environment was expected to:

1. provide a review of the data available on the state of the African freshwater environment, including coastal lagoons;

2. identify present and potential problems and the needs and the priorities in research, monitoring, training/education, as well as in the field of international cooperation and technical assistance, and

3. give guidelines to improve management and conservation of aquatic habitats and resources.

For Working Session 1, which dealt with Pollution and Degradation of the African Aquatic Environment and Impacts on Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture, a total of 25 papers were received for presentation. These have been loosely grouped into the following areas upon which the summary is based:

1. physical modifications of the aquatic environment and climate change;

2. pollution by fertilizers, pesticides, heavy metals, microorganisms, etc., and potential health hazards;

3. ecological status of African lakes, rivers and reservoirs;

4. response of African aquatic species to organic and chemical pollution and physical modification of the environment;

5. environmental impact of species introductions, and

6. strategies for hazard assessment exercises - results from African studies.

2.1 Physical Modifications of the Aquatic Environment and Climate Change

In the last 30 years, various parts of Africa have experienced drought conditions. Also within this period, many of the major rivers in Africa have been dammed in at least one location. Central to the future of both inland and marine fisheries are the changes that are and have taken place as a result of these conditions.

An illustration is given by the report on the impact of climatic change and development works on inland fisheries of the Niger Central Delta in Mali and the coastal lagoons of Togo. For 20 years, drought, increased fishing effort and large-scale infrastructural works have deeply altered these West African aquatic ecosystems resulting in changes in species composition and stock make-up.

In Togo, the drop in rainfall has isolated lagoons and changed the estuarine fish-stock make-up to one that is largely dominated by Cichlidae and, more particularly, Sarotherodon melanotheron which alone accounts for 50% of total catch. Within the context of particularly intense fishery activity, the expansion of this species has undoubtedly been due to the fact that it is under continuous reproduction.

In Mali, the two periods of drought of 1973 and 1984 reduced the annual flooded surface area by 75% and the total catch by 50% from 90 000 to 45 000 t. In addition, the dams of Markala and Sélengué, built in 1943 and 1984 respectively, have compounded the flood-season impact of drought by reducing output by an estimated 5 000 t. At the same time and despite the drop in total catch, yields per hectare have risen (from 40 kg in 1968 to 120 kg in 1989).

This is attributed to the lowering of average fish age (68% of individuals caught are under one year old) due to higher fishing and natural mortality during the drought period.

Also in West Africa, following a period of heavy rainfall between 1953 and 1959, the estuary of the River Senegal was subjected to severe drought for almost 20 years, from 1968 to 1986 with the zenith occurring between 1974 and 1980.

Estuarine conditions have been seriously affected by this climatic situation, a state of affairs further compounded by the construction of the Diama dam against saline waters, 50 km from the river mouth. The building of the dam and the development of irrigation plots have destabilized the river bed and the floodplains.

The ecosystem as a whole has been affected by these ecological disruptions, again, leading to changes in species and stock make-up in areas down and upstream of the dam.

In a review of the status of fisheries of the Tana River in Kenya, it has been revealed that the construction of five dams on this river has drastically changed its habitat and consequently fisheries. Fish species composition and abundance in the dams have changed to one dominated by non-endemic Tilapine species and the exotic Cyprinus carpio. The riverine species have declined or virtually disappeared and the eel, Anguilla sp., which was isolated from the sea, is now non-existent.

Several studies have shown that the impact of large dams stem primarily from changes in the quantity and quality of water in the post-impoundment environments. Thus damming of the Kafue River to create lake ltezhi-Tezhi affected many fish species of commercial value due to changes from riverine to lacustrine conditions. The number of fish species declined from 56 to 24 after inundation. Fish species with preference for vegetation such as Barbus, Mormyrus, and Haplochromis species were present in the lake only at times of high water. Most of the species that disappeared from the families of Mormyridae, Cyprinidae and Schilbeidea were probably unable to adapt to the change in the environment and the fluctuating water levels. Here too the population of cichlids rapidly increased and comprised 63% by number and 71 % by weight of the total fish catches from experimental gillnets. It has been proposed that water level in the lake should be maintained at, at least, 1 026.5 m above sea level to cater for species which prefer vegetation.

Another example of physical modification of the aquatic environment is that caused by seine nets. The fishery of Lake Malombe and Upper Shire River in Malawi have been seriously affected by such habitat degradation.

The introduction of seine nets in the 1970s had by the 1980s resulted in two major adverse effects on the fishery:

1. these bottom dragging nets removed most of the vegetation and weed-bed causing general habitat destruction, and

2. the use of these unselective small mesh sized (0.5" and 0.25" on the bunt) nets resulted in over-fishing of most of the major commercial species, in particular, Chambo (Tilapines).

The abundance of low priced Lethrinops species in the landed catch, which have replaced the high priced tilapines represents an economic loss. To reverse this trend, fishermen will have to revert to bigger mesh sizes (1.5") and drastically reduce fishing effort. This will form part of a programme of recovery of the fishing which will also involve participation of the communities concerned.

2.2 Pollution by Fertilizers, Pesticides, Heavy Metals Microorganisms, etc., and Potential Health Hazards

In Africa, a large proportion of both rural and urban populations lives in the vicinity of inland or coastal waters. Notable examples are Cairo on the River Nile, Khartoum at the confluence of the Blue and White Nile, Kampala on Lake Victoria, Kinshasa and Brazzaville on River Zaire, Banjul on River Gambia, Niamey and Bamako on River Niger and all the other national capitals located along the coast, e.g., Abidjan, Dakar, Rabat, Dar es Salaam, Luanda.

This trend may be explained by the fact that traditionally, human populations have tended to settle close to natural waters because they offer man's greatest hopes for food and material supplies. For example, inland and coastal waters are important ecosystem complexes for fisheries and aquaculture development.

A case in point is that of Côte d'Ivoire in West Africa. With its 20 kg/person/year, Côte d'Ivoire is among the largest consumers of fish protein in the subregion. However, as its continental shelf is relatively depleted, development has had to focus on inland fisheries and aquaculture. Unfortunately, this development has been faced with serious environmental problems which have generally affected aquatic flora and fauna.

Côte d'Ivoire has many inland waterbodies that are affected by pollution but the situation is particularly alarming in the Ebrié Lagoon especially near Abidjan. This lagoon suffers from:

• Pollution from pesticides;
• pollution from domestic sewage and slaughterhouse waste;
• effluents from food processing plants on the lagoon banks;
• intentional or accidental discharges of oil refinery effluents;

• infestation by floating vegetation which largely explains the failure of lagoon aquaculture in the eastern parts.

Untreated domestic sewage is an important source of pathogenic contamination. Moreover, the physico-chemical characteristics of the lagoon environment favour the survival and proliferation of halophilic or halotolerant bacteria, thereby contributing towards the endemic nature of water-borne diseases. Diarrhoeal syndromes have been reported on several occasions in the Abidjan region since 1970. The main causative agent for these epidemics was the EI T or Vibrio cholerae serotype Ogawa. A number of choleriform infections involving other vibrionic bacteria (Vibrio parahaemolyticus Aeromonas) are periodically reported.

The development of fisheries and aquaculture has also had negative consequences. Recent studies have noted higher incidences of V. cholerae in areas with aquacultural activities.

If the lagoon resources are to be used to maximum benefit sustainably, effluents discharged into the lagoon need to be treated. Fishery or aquaculture products need also to be controlled. Among a number of solutions envisaged, considerable emphasis will be given to prevention with, for example, the establishment of the National Observation Network charged with inspecting and monitoring the lagoon environment.

Another impact of fisheries and aquaculture development is the health hazards posed by integrated livestock cum-fish-farming systems. In Nigeria, adverse environmental conditions induced by heavy loading of fish ponds with livestock manure has been reported. These include losses in the form of fish mortalities, poor growth and outbreak of pathogenic diseases for fish and man.

Many other examples of the negative impacts of urban pollution in Africa exist. In Morocco, the estuary of the Bou Regreg River on the northwest Atlantic coast is subject to various forms of disturbance, the most prominent being urban in origin. The presence of two urban areas with a total population of over one million is causing problems in the form of untreated waste waters. A study was therefore initiated to identify more closely the behaviour of physico-chemical parameters in the immediate vicinity of the waste-water outlets and in the areas under aquacultural development. The monitoring of the physico-chemical variables showed that mineral-salt variation is not seasonal, because of the overriding dominance of anthropogenic urban pollution over agricultural pollution. Moreover, the existence of disease-bearing wells (presence of cholera germs during the summer of 1990) and the formation of “dayas” of drainage water has led to serious contamination of areas important for recreation and aquaculture.

In Egypt, many studies indicate that urban pollution has had a negative impact on the coastal fisheries. Thus, computing of the annual catches from Lake Edku (from 1964 to 1990) showed that there is considerable decrease of the migratory organisms, e.g., Anguilla anguilla, Mugil capito, Morone labrax, or even disappearance of bottom fauna such as prawns and crabs. Such disappearance or decrease of migratory organisms has coincided with predominance of non-migratory organisms, e.g., Tilapia sp. and Clarias lazera.

The disappearance or decrease of the migratory organisms in the catches from Lake Edku has been attributed to pollution of the aquatic environment of Abu-Kir Bay, to which the migratory organisms migrate from Lake Edku for spawning after which the fry return to the lake.

Also in Egypt, the heavily polluted Lake Mariut continuously receives large amounts of untreated sewage and industrial as well as agricultural run-off. Studies report that different types of pollutants such as nutrients, metals and pesticides have accumulated in considerable levels in the lake's sediments.

In a study of Lake Kariba in whose catchment DDT has been used in tsetse control operations, the highest levels were found in piscivorous tigerfish and cormorants. Although the levels found in fish were well below the risk levels for human consumption, there were indications of environmental effects such as reduced hatching success in fish eagle, reduced populations of song birds and insects.

In Guinea, although water courses are relatively unpolluted compared to those of the more industrialized countries, there is some pollution from bauxite processing, gold and diamond mining. For example, a bauxite processing plant at Fria, on the river Koukoure, discharges caustic soda (NaOH) into the river. A study was thus undertaken to examine fish stocks in order to assess the ecological impact of alkaline waste discharge on the river.

Gillnets were used to fish upstream and downstream from the point of discharge which had a pH of 10. Catches showed that an increase in pH changed the fish-stock profile with a total absence of Mormyridae downstream from the point of discharge. This absence probably reflects the great sensitivity of this family of fish to physico-chemical environmental conditions. Though preliminary, these results suggest that fish-stock analysis could be a good way of assessing environmental health.

Bweri Ward in the Mara region of Tanzania, lies alongside the muddy shores of Lake Victoria Bay, catches account for about 65% of Tanzania's total inland fishery. Four industries - textile, oil mill, fish processing and an abattoir - all discharge untreated effluents into Victoria Bay, whose waters are also used for domestic purposes by local residents.

In assessing the level of pollution caused by effluents from the above industries, samples of waste waters, receiving waters, sediments, aquatic plants and fish (Oreochromis niloticus) were analyzed. The results indicated that many physico-chemical parameters were above the allowable concentration limits for safeguarding the aquatic life and the people who use the receiving waters for domestic purposes. It has been strongly recommended that all four industries should construct appropriate and efficient treatment plants to meet the set standards.

Still on Lake Victoria, the Nzoia River in Kenya prior to the 1970s was not only a major source of clean water for the lake but it also provided good fishing grounds to the local population. Within a period of 10 years, five large industrial complexes have been established along the river basin, all of which discharge their wastes into the river. These are: a paper manufacturing industry, a chemical plant and three sugar factories.

This industrial development, coupled with increased land use, urbanization and deforestation, has destroyed the fisheries. Recent sampling shows that fish like Tilapia and Clarias species, which used to inhabit the river no longer exist. The anadromous fishes in Lake Victoria have shown a significant decline. Algal blooms in the lake have become a common feature. There is therefore an urgent need to take preventive measures to avoid further decline in water quality of this river and, by extension, of Lake Victoria.

The same situation exists for other lakes such as Tanganyika. Its sources of pollution are currently concentrated around the Burundian capital of Bujumbura. The impact of River Ntahangwa, the most polluted Burundian tributary to the lake, can be detected up to a distance of 100 m from its mouth.

2.3 Ecological Status of African Lakes, Rivers and Reservoirs

It is clear from the foregoing that in Africa over the last few decades, increasing urbanization, industrialization and agricultural land use have entailed a great increase in discharge of pollutants to receiving waters, causing undesirable effects on the aquatic environment and on fisheries. African urban pollution is generally organic, domestic sewage being a major source. Decomposable organic wastes mineralize in the receiving waters and the resulting nutritive elements stimulate production, leading to eutrophication. In this situation, the biomass increases considerably and goes beyond the assimilative capacity of the receiving waters.

It has been reported that the growth of the city of Harare has led to severe eutrophication problems in Lake Chivero and there is some evidence that eutrophication is beginning to affect some of the other reservoirs on the Manyame River. These reservoirs form the city's water supply and the consequences of their eutrophication has serious implications on the quality of the water delivered to the city. At present, Lake Chivero has an abundant fish population and supports productive fisheries, but this may change if the quantity of nutrients discharged into it continues to increase.

Another example is Mellah Lake, a shallow lagoon in northeast Algeria which is joined to the sea by a narrow channel. This body of brackishwater has a freshwater/saltwater cycle governed by rainfall patterns. Though located within El Kala National Park, which has been a protected area since 1983, this lagoon is under extensive small-scale fish and shellfish harvesting. An estimation of the productivity of the lake at the primary level in relation to its hydrographic regime and comparison with data from 20 years ago suggest that the lake is heading towards confinement, eutrophication and accumulation of particulate material. Chlorophyll and transparency values indicate that El Mellah Lake, which was still in equilibrium at the end of the 1970s, is now eutrophic according to the OECD classification.

In spite of their size, such small waters need protection since they also have the potential to serve as in situ gene banks for aquaculture. For example, the waterbodies of Malawi have been internationally considered as homes of prestigious biodiversity especially the fish species found in the lakes. Although the waterbodies are rich in fish species, the current demographic growth rate poses a serious threat on conservation of the aquatic biodiversity, to the effect that there is need for devising alternative in situ approaches to conservation.

Studies were carried out to assess the allelic diversity, rate of inbreeding and growth rate of lake, reservoir and small-scale aquaculture populations of Oreochromis shiranus species. Most small-scale farms encountered had inbreeding rates of at least 15% per generation, which were considerably high and would likely cause rapid genetic deterioration of the farmed stocks. The instantaneous growth rate was significantly higher (P<0.05) in the wild and semi-wild populations than in the domesticated populations.

These observations indicate that although the reservoirs have received least management attention, they contain isolated populations which have high genetic variation and faster growth rates than most aquaculture populations.

2.4 Response of African Aquatic Species to Organic and Chemical Pollution and Physical Modification of the Environment

An important use of chemicals in Africa lies in the public and animal health sectors to curb endemic diseases such as malaria, onchocerciasis and schistosomiasis through the control of their insect or mollusc hosts.

A human Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) in West Africa uses insecticides to control populations of the disease vector, Simulium damnosum, the black fly. The rational of the programme is to make available for socio-economic and human development vast fertile valleys where development has been obstructed by high incidence of onchocerciasis or river blindness. The approach of OCP has mainly been to attack the aquatic larval stages of the fly at their breeding sites with selected larvicides to interrupt the transmission cycle of the disease. To avoid undue and probably unknown degradation of aquatic resources of river basins involved, OCP developed and instituted a biological monitoring programme to continuously assess the status of fisheries and fish populations together with that of invertebrate fauna which constitute fish food. Results after almost 20 years of monitoring show that:

1. no fish mortalities occur with larviciding at operational doses of insecticides;

2. no detectable changes in fish catches could be attributed to larviciding. Rather, evidence suggests that observed changes were associated with hydrological conditions;

3. food availability and feeding habits of fish have not been altered permanently;

4. the condition of principal fish species indicates slight variations around a mean which has remained quite stable;

5. Acetycholinesterase activity of brain of fish, free in water courses, has not been affected by larviciding, and

6. in some cases, impact of human activities (e.g., destruction of fish breeding grounds and poison fishing) have effected more adverse influence on fish populations than could be associated with larviciding.

In the long term, using monitoring and ecological assessment as an integral part, the OCP has become one of the most environmentally sound projects of its magnitude anywhere in the world. In the short term, however, the use of insecticides may provoke detrimental effects. An example is shown in the project on chemical control of desert locusts in Senegal.

The short-term side effects of three insecticides used for the control of desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) were investigated in irrigation reservoirs connected to the Senegal River. Single experimental treatments were carried out with the organophosphates Dursban^R (chlorpyrifos) and Sumithion^R (fenitrithion) and the insect growth regulator Dimilin^R (diflubenzuron) from an aircraft.

None of the applications had effects on populations of a small fish Aplocheilichthys normani (Cyprodontidae), but chlorpyrifos completely eradicated the population of Porogobious schlegelii (Gobiidae). Caged shrimps, Palaemonetes africanus (Palaemonidae), showed high mortalities in in situ bioassays following the applications of both chlorpyrifos and fenitrithion. Although the numbers of P. africanus and Caridina africana (Palaemonidae) in the reservoirs were reduced to almost zero, this was only significant during 1–3 weeks after the treatments, due to decreasing abundance in the control reservoir. Several species of aquatic insects were found dead on the water surface following the treatments with the two organophosphates, but few effects on populations of abundant species were significant.

2.5 Environmental Impact of Species Introductions

Many African inland water fish populations have been introduced and, very often, have completely reshaped the original ecosystem to the point of displacing or eliminating certain other species.

For example, species diversity in Lake Victoria has drastically reduced despite the increasing production level over the recent past. Several factors have been cited for the change in diversity. A major attribute is the late introduction of the Nile perch which, even though stabilizing from the economic viewpoint, has a destructive effect on diversity because of its predatory tendency. The history of the evolution of these fish populations has often been marked by disruptions in the food chain and changes in the dietary regimes of certain populations.

Changes in ecosystem structure following species introductions have been evaluated for Lake Victoria, Lake Naivasha, Lake Ihema (proposed introduction of a predator), a man-made Sahelian lake and Kariba artificial lake using the adapted ECOPATH II software model. The most significant impact from these introductions would appear to be a change in consumption of low-value foods.

More information and contributions are however needed so that more African aquatic environments can be similarly documented. This would also help popularize this relatively unfamiliar field to many African scientists.

2.6 Strategies for Hazard Assessment Exercises - Results from African Studies

Traditionally, research on pollution focuses on producing precise information on, for example, statistical distribution of chemicals or compounds of interest over time and biochemical transformation. This conventional approach is useful as it provides basic information on occurrence, toxicity, etc.

Recent approaches, which may be termed “non-traditional”, tend towards producing information necessary for control measures prior to discharge of pollutants. One type of approach aims at quantitatively defining biogeochemical cycles of various molecules and elements using simulation models and tests in partially controlled ecosystems. This approach leads to the determination of a Predicted Environmental Concentration (PEC) on the basis of the degree of affinity of the chemicals to the fundamental environmental compartments - water, air, soil, biota.

The PEC can be linked to the Hazard Assessment Approach which operates on the assumption that “no exposure means no need for toxicity data”. Thus it is not necessary to conduct very complex toxicological studies when, as a first estimate, the PEC of a chemical is very low compared to the acute toxic concentrations. An example of this exercise is the preliminary hazard assessment of the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria, Kenya.

The land use patterns on the Kenyan portion of Lake Victoria basin were quantified between September 1991 and April 1992. Fertilizers, pesticides, urban, industrial and heavy metal contaminant loads in the area were estimated. A chronological review of changes in the watershed and Lake Victoria indicated a series of abrupt and severe modifications in the aquatic environment during the 1980s.

The studies also showed that the aquatic environment exhibited traditional symptoms of eutrophication: high nutrients, decreased transparency and hypolimnetic deoxygenation. Loads from urban centres, agro-based industries and erosion as well as cultivated agricultural land, and uncultivated land are sources of eutrophication. The limiting nutrient in the lake basin was phosphorus.

Pesticides in the watershed were ranked based on their toxicity, bioaccumulation, persistence, leachability and the quantities applied in the area. Apparently, those used do not create toxicity problems. A few, such as aldrin, have a potential for bioaccumulation while altracine may contaminate water. Organo-chlorinated compounds (PCB, HCB, DDT and their derivatives) used in the area are low in concentration and old. Metal sources of contaminants are limited and analysis of fish tissues confirm that they do not pose any danger in the area.

The main activity of inhabitants in the Lake Victoria watershed is agriculture. As this activity will continue, great amounts of silt or sediments from run-offs in cultivated areas, urban centres, industrial sites and natural forests will be washed into rivers and ultimately reach Lake Victoria. This may worsen the eutrophication in the watershed. It has been pointed out that current legislation and management measures aimed at the reduction of soil erosion and sedimentation in the catchment may be insufficient for a significant improvement of the situation.

3. WORKING SESSION 2: ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF INLAND FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN AFRICA - CROSS-SECTORAL COORDINATION

For Working Session 2, which dealt with environmental management of inland fisheries and aquaculture in Africa and cross-sectoral coordination, a total of 15 papers were received for presentation. These have been loosely grouped into the following areas:

1. strategies for environmentally sound management of inland fisheries and aquaculture development taking into account socio-economic structures - experience in Africa;

2. environmental policy measures and legal framework to prevent further deterioration of African freshwater environments;

3. African experience in river/lake basin management, and

4. collaboration between national environment protection agencies and authorities responsible for the development of fisheries, agriculture and other sectors.

3.1 Strategies for Environmentally Sound Management of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture Development taking into Account Socio-economic Structures - Experience in Africa

In most African countries there is still potential for inland fisheries and aquaculture development. However, some waterbodies are facing environmental problems and the need for an environmentally sound management is increasingly recognised. Several strategies have been developed and tested in Africa and it appears that local communities are generally well aware of the risks and consequences of resource degradation and, if given the means and possibility, would be interested in managing their resources in a sustainable manner.

In the Sahel, for instance, the total catch, actually at 130 000 t/year, is still below the theoretical production potential of inland fisheries. However, a number of field observations indicate that the more common type of fisheries (at the socio-economic and food-security levels) are reaching the point of overexploitation. In addition, the aquatic ecosystems in the Sahel are increasingly subject to eutrophication and excessive siltation as a result of endemic drought and rural development policies.

In the case of Burkina Faso, were the prevailing situation is an open access one, the management and regulation of inland fisheries is complicated by the great diversity of both the type of waterbodies (small not permanent reservoirs to great dams) and fishermen (mainly two categories: national settled semi-professional fishermen or fishermen/farmers and subregional migrant fishermen). Therefore, management strategies need to take into account the type of fisheries which is predominant in a waterbody. For waterbodies where national fishermen are dominant, it is suggested to allocate resources to them as they are generally well aware of the necessity of proper management. If, however, the fishery is dominated by foreign migrant fishermen who, due to their unstable situation, are generally more interested in maximizing short-term profits rather than in a sustainable exploitation, regulation and control by a government institution (and supra-national coordination in the case of international waterbodies) is required.

In Côte d'Ivoire, where several lagoons are increasingly affected by fishing with toxic products (lindane, gamaline), a successful plan of control for the elimination of these destructive fishing practices was developed in Grand-Lahou Lagoon by the Department of Fisheries involving local communities. The following strategy was used: identification and registration of the main parties directly or indirectly involved in lagoon fishing; information and awareness campaign on the toxic consequences of using such products; reinforcement of fishing regulations and control, with the effective involvement of local authorities and communities who established surveillance committees. This plan which was implemented in Grand-Lahou Lagoon in 1991, resulted in the total elimination of fishing with toxic products in the lagoon to the great satisfaction of the fishing and local population. The Department of Fisheries envisages to rapidly extend similar measures to other lagoons (Ebrié, Aby, Fresco) affected by the same phenomenon.

In the southern African region, fishery resources are usually managed by a government institution through regulation of fishing effort, and fishermen are not directly involved in management decision-making. This system may be suitable for larger waterbodies, but it is not practical for a central government institution to manage a large number of small waterbodies at dispersed locations as is the case in Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe, where management authority can be granted to local institutions, community-based fishery management has recently been introduced in several reservoirs where preliminary PRA exercises had revealed interest among the local communities. In most cases, community members have identified environmental degradation (siltation, drying up) as one of the major problems with their reservoirs and have chosen management schemes which mitigate this degradation. However, several of these problems can only be tackled with a commitment from people living in the catchment area, who may live far away and are not necessarily among the prime beneficiaries. Since the majority of the reservoirs in Southern Africa are smaller than 5 ha and hence have a small catchment, community-based management may be feasible for many of them.

In a recently completed pilot study of the technical and economic feasibility of small-scale rainfed aquaculture, it was found that these systems can be both profitable and self-sustaining in rural Malawi. Interested farmers were motivated to construct ponds on temporally flooded soils which are not suitable for traditional cropping. The ponds were fertilized with agricultural waste only, and provided the smallholders with additional animal protein and some cash income. It was also found that the microclimatic effects of holding water on the land can have a positive environmental impact on the farm itself such as improved fertility, soil drainage, crop production and soil moisture.

With regard to the high demand for fish and fishery products in Nigeria and the relative deficit in the national production, the Federal Department of Fisheries has received the mandate of developing the Nigerian fishery resources and accelerating private sector participation in fish production. Currently, aquaculture practices are semi-intensive and dominated by small-scale operators, but some large-scale commercial farms are also in operation since 1984. It is proposed to integrate aquaculture and fisheries in water resources development programmes, to institutionalize pre-impoundment studies for dam construction projects and make provision for fish passages and to reinforce collaboration with research institutes for monitoring and resources conservation programmes.

Education and creation of awareness among the local communities are a prerequisite for appropriate resource utilization and conservation of the environment and its natural resources. In this context, NGOs have an important role to play in bridging the gap between researchers and resource users and in facilitating technology transfer. In Kenya for instance, the Wildlife Clubs of Kenya have as set objective to sensitize the local communities of the available natural resources, their sustainable utilization and conservation. Their main target group are the youth, being the future leaders and a potential group in conveying technologies to the locals. Inland fish farming was introduced to schools, but the ponds were also used for education of non-school members.

3.2 Environmental Policy Measures and Legal Framework to Prevent Further Deterioration of African Freshwater Environments

The lack of political commitment of many African states, where governments are often only interested in short-term financial gains, job opportunities and foreign currency earnings, without considering the long-term negative impacts on the resources, represents a serious threat to African freshwater environments. In addition, the legal framework in place is often inadequate and would need to be reviewed, as in some countries part of the legislation is not corresponding to the actual situation anymore, and sometimes laws are even contradictory.

In Burundi, both the fishery legislation and the legislation on the protection of the environment were established during the colonial period and are now inadequate for many situations. Several destructive fishing practices are permitted and for others, which are banned there are no adequate sanctions and control mechanisms in place. Recently, the fishery legislation was updated in order to adapt to the current situation. The new draft laws specify the terms and conditions for issuing fishing permits, reintroduce the possibility of granting exclusive territorial fishing rights and clearly define violations and sanctions. The fisheries and aquaculture administration will further be required to draw up a fisheries development plan. The need for a regional approach for the management of waterbodies shared among several countries, such as Lake Tanganyika, is also pointed out.

Zaïre has many waterbodies which are rich in fishery resources; the fishery potential is estimated at 707 000 t/year. However, these resources are threatened by human activities such as small-scale and industrial mining (diamond and gold), uncontrolled urbanization, discharge of industrial effluents (generally untreated), deforestation (mainly mangrove removal), run-off of pesticides and fertilizers, forbidden fishing methods and gear (use of toxic products and small meshnets sometimes even in the nursery areas). The following recommendations are made to prevent further pollution and degradation of the aquatic environment:

1. assess the state of the resources and the impact of human activities through continuous monitoring;

2. establish country specific water quality standards;

3. institute a waste and sewage treatment and recycling concept as a prerequisite for each industrial project development;

4. educate the water resources users;

5. update and strengthen the legislation relative to fisheries and environmental protection by defining closed fishing areas and seasons, regulating permitted fishing gears and methods, water discharge limits and waste deposit sites, regulating and coordinating fishing, dredging and mining activities and periods;

6. strengthen the Fisheries Inspection Services, and

7. prepare a Regional Land-Use Plan which will be updated regularly.

During the last 15 years, the world aquaculture experienced an uninterrupted growth and its production increased from 50 000 t in 1980 to 720 000 t in 1992. However, most main cultivation areas face serious production problems now. High short-term financial gains from shrimp farming in developing countries, work opportunities and foreign currency earnings have encouraged governments of developing countries to foster sectoral growth, without making adequate provisions in terms of planning or regulation. The rapid uncontrolled growth of shrimp farming has been at the expense of the environment. Environmental degradation of many of the more long-standing shrimp farming areas resulted in a collapse of their operations production. This serious crisis provides a promising opportunity for Africa, which actually produces less than 1% of the world aquaculture production, since it still has a relatively unpolluted coastline, areas with good potential and a number of economic advantages (low labour costs and proximity to European markets). Industrial farms are already being set up in Madagascar and Mozambique, for example. Africa can take advantage of the lessons drawn from recent experiences and implement sustainable development policies based on adequate planning and control from the very outset, and should in particular:

1. promote farming techniques with limited impact on the environment;

2. define zones for aquaculture development to avoid excessive concentration and to blend sectoral development with that of other activities both, along the coast and in upstream watershed areas;

3. set effluent and water quality standards;

4. legislate and control the introduction of exotic species;

5. develop national and subregional approaches, and

6. foster institution-building for planning, monitoring of development and management of health and sanitation.

3.3 African Experience in River/Lake Basin Management

Ideally, river and lake basins would require integrated watershed management, considering all stakeholders and activities taking place in the catchment area. In practice, this aim is generally far too ambitious and can be achieved only partially. Nevertheless, some promising steps towards integrated river/lake basin management were undertaken in Africa.

Lake Nubia is the Sudanese part of the Aswan High Dam reservoir on the River Nile. With a maximum expected area of 1 039 km², it is the second largest man-made lake in Sudan. The present level of catches is about 300 t/year, which is only 10% of the potential yield estimated for the present level of filling (60% of the maximum expected area). By comparing the few available pre-and post-impoundment studies, it appears that the fish fauna of the lake has undergone marked alterations and that all small fish species have disappeared. Presently, Lates niloticus (Nile perch), Oreochromis niloticus, Tilapia galilaeus and Labeo sp., constitute more than 75% of total fish landings. Only part of the lake is being fished and only limited traditional fishing means and methods are used. Proper management measures and control are needed to obtain sustainable yield and development of the underutilized fishery resource. A first step is to take into consideration the increase of fishing effort, coupled with formulation and firm application of suitable fishing regulations to prohibit illegal fishing and fishing gears. For increasing the yield of the lake, pre-impoundment surveys could give an indication on the possible species composition for stocking programmes. Possible aquaculture techniques (such as cage and pen cultures) are considered feasible and could be combined with capture fisheries to fully use the reservoir ecosystem.

Since its creation in 1958, Lake Kariba reservoir has undergone major changes in yield and fish species composition and abundance. These changes are related to environmental aspects, mainly the lake fluctuation pattern which is dependent on rainfall and abstraction by the Zambia/Zimbabwe power stations. Nevertheless, fishermen's income is still very high according to Zambian standards and encourages people to join the fishing industry. However, owing to lack of infrastructure, funds, logistics and personnel involved, regulatory efforts are difficult to implement, but are necessary as indicated by the drop of CPUE and landings in 1990, resulting from an increased effort. In addition, the more profitable and environmentally sound fresh (chilled) fish trade has declined from 45% of the total volume in 1962 to 4% in 1989 and the increased amount of fuelwood needed for fish processing has already led to a vast deforestation in certain areas. On the basis of the experience gained during a four-year project phase, it is shown that the introduction of an improved smoking kiln (chorkor kiln), to replace the traditional smoking devices, could reduce the annual need of fuelwood from 19 575 to 5 980 t. Further, basic experiences from the introduction of a water-borne transport system are discussed. Among the major objectives are the reduction of high average shelftime of dry/smoked fish to diminish spoilage and a shift of the existing marketing patterns towards the chilled fish trade which would lead to a reduction of the high deforestation rate.

3.4 Colláboration between National Environment Protection Agencies and Authorities Responsible for the Development of Fisheries, Agriculture and Other Sectors

With regard to the multi-purpose use of inland waters, coordination between the different sectors and agencies involved is essential. There are some successful examples in Africa for the management of small waterbodies. However, in the case of larger waterbodies, especially for those which are shared among several countries, coordination appears to be more difficult.

In Malawi, fish farming was started during the early 1900s by the British colonialists. By 1993, there were 2 023 small-scale fish farmers in Malawi, with 3 885 ponds, 50% of which were situated in the southern region of Malawi. Although the last decade has seen a great emphasis on environmental impact assessment, no such assessments have been carried out since fish farming started in Malawi. Therefore, in early 1994, initiatives were taken by the Malawi-German Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MAGFAD) Project, to undertake an environmental assessment of its fish farming project areas in the south of Malawi. The assessment was carried out jointly with the Ministry of Agriculture's Land Resources Use and Husbandry Section, with the aims of: (i) examining current land use practices in the fish farming areas; (ii) establishing a protocol for involving fish and non-fish farmers in sound land (and pond catchment) conservation management, and (iii) establishing a cross-sectoral coordination between the Fisheries Department's Aquaculture Section and the Ministry of Agriculture's Land Resource Use and Husbandry Section for monitoring environmental aspects of fish and crop farming. The study revealed that the sedimentation rate in the ponds is very high because the fields located on the upper slopes of the fish ponds are not subjected to any soil conservation measures. Although nutrients lost from the agricultural land find their way to the fishponds and enhance plankton productivity, not all are utilized by the fish, most of it settles to the pond sediment. Experiments showed that these nutrient-rich pond sediments could form a basis for re-utilizing them as crop fertilizer. In order to reduce the negative impacts of the present land use practices on both agricultural land (loss of nutrients) and fishponds (siltation and pollution by pesticides and fertilizers), coordination between agriculture and fisheries departments was initiated. Farmers (both crop and fish farmers) were organized into catchment conservation groups for the realization of conservation measures such as the construction of marker and contour ridges for controlling soil losses. All farmers should be informed about the benefits of integrated watershed management and development and trained in soil and water conservation.

Lake Tanganyika is an asset for the riparian States. It is of vital importance for transportation, supply of drinking water and for the supply of animal protein. Lake Tanganyika has more than 250 fish species, 92% are endemic and 72% cichlids. The majority (over 200 species) occur in the littoral zone. The lake's fishery, however, is based on six pelagic species: two clupeids (Stolothrissa tanganicae and Limnothrissa miodon) and four centropomids (Lates stappersii, L. mariae, L. microlepis and L. angustifrons). However, some harmful fishing methods such as beach-seining, with their destructive effect on breeding grounds, are practised in the littoral zone. The lake waters, particularly on the Tanzanian side, are generally clean and of good quality. Some land use practices, such as wild fires during preparation of land for farming, intensive agriculture on steep slopes and cutting down of trees for making charcoal and/or for firewood, have contributed substantially to siltation and pollution in the lake. Furthermore, aquatic pollution from domestic waste and industrial effluents such as oil spills at the Kigoma port during filling of tankers, oil and waste discharges from ships and garages within Kigoma/Ujiji township pose a threat to the lake if appropriate measures are not taken to curb such practices. In order to prevent the destruction of this great resource, the riparian States should adopt common conservation policies for the management of the lake resources and their catchments. They should monitor and safeguard the lake water quality, ban harmful fishing methods, discourage unplanned and bad land use practices and ensure that development around the lake, such as oil exploitation, sewage discharge points and industrial development, are preceded by environmental impact assessment studies. The establishment of underwater reserves in the inshore areas is further recommended.

Lake Victoria Basin is used for multiple purposes. However, due to the exceptionally high catch (around 500 000 t/year) linked to the introduction of the Nile perch, the overriding economic interest stays on fishery, but there are increasing concerns as to whether the catches are at a sustainable level. The former multi-species fisheries was reduced to a basically 3-species fisheries, consisting of Nile perch, Nile tilapia, and dagaa/omena. Predatory pressure of the Nile perch, and overfishing have depleted/extinguished most of the approximately 300 endemic haplochromine cichlid species, thereby altering the foodweb. The depletion of phytoplankton- and detritus-feeding haplochromines has probably contributed to an increased prevalence of algae and thereby to oxygen depletion at deeper levels of the lake, resulting in periodic fish kills. There are several potential hazards threatening the lake's resources and water quality, with the greatest problem being eutrophication and organic pollution. In the Kenyan (and partly the Ugandan) catchment, there are substantial urban centres and industries, emitting largely untreated sewage with highly biodegradable organic matter. Throughout the catchment, agricultural non-point pollution is of concern. Deforestation, and certain land-use practices result in high sediment (and nitrogen/phosphate) loads reaching the lake through its tributaries. At the same time, wetlands, which trap part of the incoming sediment load, are being converted to croplands. Another concern (especially in the Ugandan part of the lake) is the spread of water hyacinth, which is favoured under eutrophic conditions in near-shore areas. Various user conflicts exist within the three riparian countries (namely Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda), since the priorities differ for each country. On the other hand, the majority of the lake's issues are of transboundary nature and cannot be tackled successfully without a regional approach. Therefore, a regional environmental management programme for the Lake Victoria Basin, to be funded under the “International Waters” portfolio of the Global Environment Facility (GEF) is proposed to tackle those common environmental problems. During the preparatory phase of the programme, the difficulties to obtain required political commitments from the three riparian countries were outlined. A framework is needed to coordinate the many activities of donors which were attracted by the high endemic biodiversity of Lake Victoria.

4. CONCLUSIONS

It is apparent that in line with increases in urbanization, industrialization and agricultural land use as well as expansion in other development activities including fisheries itself, the ecology of many African waterbodies has been altered. Climatic changes leading to drought conditions have also aggravated the situation.

These have had direct consequences on fisheries leading to, amongst others, changes in stock make-up and even disappearance of certain species. Although not in all cases, many of the examples presented above show that changes in fish species composition have favoured the Cichlidae which now dominate these waterbodies. What is not clear is whether any advantage can be taken of this trend.

The loss of the more economically important fisheries have had negative impacts on the various communities and localities.

Many human activities have a deleterious effect on natural resources and several aquatic species and habitats have been irremediably lost. In some cases, habitat restoration is possible, but is generally much more expensive than preventive actions.

Development activities which lead to the above changes will however go on as long as African governments are determined to find ways to improve the well-being of their people. What is therefore important is to find the right ways to develop which will lead to minimum degradation of the environment. In recognition of this, several proposals have been made for the control of pollution of waterbodies and the sustainable utilization of their resources. These include effluent treatment, control of net mesh sizes for fishing and involvement of local communities in planning and execution of conservation measures.