ANNEX VIII: COUNTRY REPORT (Cont.)
In the first ten years of independence (1961 - 1971), Sierra Leone had a stable economy with an annual growth rate of 4 %. The fiscal and foreign exchange positions were healthy and inflation was low. In spite of the first oil shock following the OPEC action to increase oil prices (1973) the economic growth still averaged over 3 percent in the first half of the 1970s. Between 1975 and 1980, however, GDP growth showed one percent a year as a result of falling incomes from the mining sector. A positive trade balance existed in 1987. National debts were estimated to be US$1057 million, equivalent to 118% GNP at that time. The situation worsened especially with the onset of the civil war in 1992 when agricultural exports collapsed. The export of minerals stopped in January 1995 when SIEROMCO (bauxite) and rutile (tatanium) mines were attacked. It was reported that 65% of the economy was funded by these exports. The investment climate continued to worsen with increasing insecurity in the country. As inflation spiralled salaries were correspondingly been eroded. The exchange rate in 1982 was approximately one leone to the US Dollar. In July 1995 it was 635 leones/US$ but at the end of October 1995 it was 1000 leones, an increase of 44% in just four months. The current exchange rate (December 1999) is 2800 leones to one US$.
The macro economic indicators show the economy to be in a very poor shape as the country has not fully recovered from the nearly 9 years civil war. The prospect without foreign aid looks bleak. Progress in the forestry sector is entirely dependent on the return of some economic growth. The inadequacy of income of public servants is the main economic factor affecting the sector most seriously. Also there is generally little logistic support for forestry field operations. This makes it impossible for the Forestry Division to fulfil its mandate.
Forestry contributes about 6-7% to GDP. Within this range, only 0.6% comes from the solid wood manufacturing sector. The overall proportion might be 2% higher if the subsistence farmers' collection of firewood for their own use is valued at market prices. Sawn timber export accounts for only about 0.2% of the total export revenue and imports, mainly plywood from Liberia (before the Liberian civil war broke out) were valued at 1.7% of the total.
Roundwood harvest is 95% firewood (by volume), building poles taking is 4%, sawn timber (mechanical and pit) is 1%. The firewood sector is a major employer at all levels from the farmer to the street retailer and a vital source of secondary income for many households in hard times. Low and medium income households are highly dependent on firewood energy, and the total energy bill for the farmer is 40% of disposable income. The price of firewood has been on the increase. The problem is however one of poor incomes rather than high prices.
The political situation in Sierra Leone
To address the problem of widespread poverty, the Government of Sierra Leone (GOSL) embarked on an economic recovery programme in 1989, to restore economic growth and basic social services. This effort never succeeded as a rebel war broke out in March 1991 and on April 29, 1992 the APC Government was overthrown by the NPRC Military junta led by Captain Strasser who, himself, was overthrown in a palace coup that brought Maada Bio into power. His rule paved the way to the general elections that brought the SLPP Government to power in March, 1996. In May 1997, the AFRC overthrew the SLPP Government and invited the RUF to join them, bringing a political impasse in the country which lasted till February 1998. The AFRC/RUF junta rule encountered a lot of problems with unprecedented human suffering. The country has not fully recovered from the trauma.
Social and human context for forestry
In spite of its vital role in national development, the forestry sector could not effectively carry out its functions because of shortage of professional staff both at headquarters and in the field.
Forest products, especially firewood, have not been efficiently utilized. Most of the trees removed during land clearing for rice cultivation are burnt by villagers even though there is a thriving demand for firewood in urban centres. Previous woodfuel surveys were only ad hoc and not continuous. They were not sound and data obtained were not reliable because of the uncertain volume of the small bundles of firewood.
Fire damage is widespread, charcoal production and marketing are inefficient, while logging and mill residues are wasted completely due to the remoteness of operational areas. Social Forestry which has significant potential to alleviate current and eventual energy scarcity is not given the deserved attention. Social forestry knowledge systems have been promoted widely even though its acceptance has been slow.
In view of these problems, the Government of Sierra Leone sought for UNDP assistance for a review of the forestry sector. This review was aimed at facilitating the preparation of a detailed framework for a national forestry development plan and the identification of appropriate interventions by a variety of donor agencies. This effort culminated in the Donors' Round Table Conference in 1990 and the launching of the National Forestry Action Plan (NFAP), proposed by the Tropical Forestry Action Programme (TFAP).
The first phase of the programme, which was Capacity Building, was geared towards establishing and strengthening the institutional capacities to back up planned programmes and to collect data for management purposes.
Land in the provinces of Sierra Leone is under the customary land tenure system, except in the Western Area where freehold-ownership is practised. The land belongs to the chiefdom community, with the tribal authority or paramount chief as custodian. Individuals have access but no ownership rights to these lands. Such community lands cannot be bought or sold, but accepted customary users can sub-allocate or lease them with the consent of the traditional authorities.
Rights to land are transferred from one generation to another according to prevailing norms of the kinship system, recognising the de facto private ownership which allows individuals access to land they cultivate and reside on. The system is usually quite flexible and adaptable in its application. The widespread displacement of people (by the war) from their traditional lands have tended to resort to special arrangements, even though temporary, for survival.
Most displaced persons do not expect difficulty in regaining access to lands on which they originally had rights in their communities.
This traditional land tenure arrangement has worked well over the years. It is likely to continue to do so until the population pressure starts to bring in competition of limited land resources, especially if the desired living requirements of individuals cannot be satisfied from the land on which they have access. Productivity has not been seen as a factor affected such land tenure system. Shortening of fallow period adversely affects productivity. Long-term investments for improving land would be forthcoming if adequate returns of their inheritance can be assured.
Although the traditional land tenure system has worked reasonably well in the past, it has the following drawbacks:
There is no legal form of registration or documentation for agricultural land in Sierra Leone. Disputes over use of land, particularly as population growth and aspiration for better living standards increase the demand, could be faced with great difficulty in equitable settlement without proper records of tenure under traditional rights. Land use allocations based on oral agreements, are subject to blurring, especially when the old practice of providing gifts for recognising the arrangements is diminishing. Conflicts could evolve between migrant herders and arable farmers, because traditional rights of herders on crop residues, swamp vegetation and water during the dry seasons call for adaptation with changing farming systems.
The system concentrates the decision authority over land-rights in the hands of a few who may be tempted by unscrupulous or unenlightened leadership, to abuse or misuse it for the benefit of the Paramount Chief or themselves without regard for the interest of the rest of the chiefdom community.
The system allows little value of the land as loan collateral. This would limit formal credit at reasonable cost for future investments in land development and production ventures.
Regarding the role of forestry in landuse, a great concern is the gradual breaking down of the bush fallow system with consequent losses in fertility and yield, and increased pressure on regrowth and forest cover. The other areas of concern are indiscriminate burning (in the northern region savannah) and the need for land use and watershed planning in key hydro-electric catchments. The Forestry Division is pre-occupied with the improvement of the traditional bush fallow system by developing alternative agroforestry systems which could speed up the process of rebuilding soil fertility. Before the war, the Forestry Division was encouraging the rehabilitation of mined-out areas to reduce soil erosion thereby creating a favourable environment for aquatic life.
Table 1: Types of forests in Sierra Leone
Forest Type |
Area (103ha) |
Closed high forest Secondary forest Forest regrowth Savannah woodland Mangroves and associated woodlands |
365 261 3 774 1 619 286 |
Total |
6 305 |
Over 80% of the total land area of Sierra Leone is covered with various types of forests. However, only 5% of that cover represents high forest while 60% is forest regrowth or follows the bush fallow cultivation system. Referring to the table above, high forests of which 400 km2 are forest reserves and plantations, are mainly concentrated in the East and South of the country. The problem of deforestation is becoming increasingly acute since 90% of the domestic energy needs, excluding electric generation and vehicle transport, are obtained from woody biomass for a growing population. The rate of wood extraction far exceeds the rate of forest regeneration (both artificial and natural). The net deforestation is put at 5 000 ha per annum (i.e. to every 8 000 ha deforested only 3 000 ha are planted).
Loss of Natural forests: In 1980 some 1 923 200 ha of forest area were registered, in 1990 only 1 521 800 ha remained (loss of 2.3 % per year) and 5 years later, in 1995, more than 200 000 ha were further lost (loss of 3% of existing forest per year), which brings the area to 1 308 500 ha.
The supply for woodfuel in Sierra Leone is shown in the table below.
Table 2: Fuelwood productivity in natural forests in Sierra Leone (Source: adopted from FAO, 1983)
Forest type |
Area (103 ha) |
Fuelwood productivity M3 / ha / annum |
Total fuelwood (103m3) |
Closed high forest Secondary forest Forest regrowth Savannah woodland Mangrove and woodland |
365 261 3 774 1 619 286 |
3.0 2.5 1.5 0.5 1.3 |
1 095 652 5 661 809 371 |
Total |
6 305 |
- |
8 588 |
Forest products production, trade and consumption
Record keeping is a serious problem in the Forestry Division as forestry information is scattered in various files and records. Roundwood harvest figures for the period between 1970 to 1990 in the Eastern Region are not reliable. Details of production and importation from 1990 to 1997 are shown in the following tables
Table 3: Sierra Leone production (1990 - 1997)
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 | |
|
Roundwood (1000 m3) Fuelwood (1000 m3) Wood for charcoal (1000 m3) Indust. Roundwood (1000 m3) Sawlogs & Veneer (1000 m3) Other Industr. Roundw (t) FAO Charcoal (t) FAO Sawnwood (1000 m3) |
2 930 2 792 42 138 18 120 7 11 |
2 991 2 822 48 122 1,6 120 8 9 |
301 2 840 48 120 0 120 8 9 |
30 276 2 856 48 124 3,6 120 8 5,3 |
3 055 2 883 48 1 236 3,6 1 200 8 5,3 |
3 102 293 48 1 236 3,6 1 200 8 5,3 |
3 174 3 002 48 1 236 3,6 1 200 8 5,3 |
3 265 310 48 1 236 3,6 1 200 8 5,3 |
Table 4: Sierra Leone imports (1990 - 1997)
1990 |
1991 |
1992 |
1993 |
1994 |
1995 |
1996 |
1997 | |
Industrial Rwd wire NC other (M3) Sawn wood (NC) Wood-based panels Veneer sheets Plywood Particle Board Fibre board Fibre board (Compressed) Hardboard Insulating Board Wood pulp (Mt) Mechanical pulp Mt Recovered paper and Paper and paper paperboard Newsprint Mt Printing + Writing Paper (Mt) Other Paper + Paperboard (Mt) |
- 800 - 800 - - 0M 0M 0 600 0M 300 300 |
- 500 500 - - 0M 0M 0 1 300 0M 600 700 |
90 41 1 049 7 160 56 826 820 0M 6 1 477 178 425 544 39 289 216 |
0M 148 16 119 6 7 3 0M 4 22 0M 68 1 349 325 537 487 |
169 208 16t 106 3 83 79 0M 4T 18 0T 577 1 138 70 732 336 |
1 69T 743 16T 25 128 574 o 150 424 18 oT 562 480 213 43 224 |
56 752 o 100 1 28T 524 oT 100 4 24T 418 oT 400 1 900 1 500 200 200 |
41 30 329 oT 2 1 28T 199 oT 175 24 729 oT 240 4 088 3 749 164 175 |
Sawnwood Production: The total annual sawnwood production is estimated at 26 000m3 or less. Production of sawnwood by pit-sawyers and sawmills have no reliable records. The production figure is based on the best-informed guess-estimates.
Sawnwood Consumption: Domestic timber consumption is estimated at about +/-20 000 m3 per annum. 60% of this volume is sold in Freetown. It was claimed that some of the timber sold in Freetown finds its way to the Northern Province and out of the country to the Republic of Guinea.
Export Potential for Sawnwood: There is a ban on log export. There was an export market for sawnwood from Sierra Leone but inadequate production and shortage of preferred species was apparently the main constraint. Major export markets were Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Guinea.
Woodfuel: About 95 of the population use woodfuel for providing energy for cooking and ironing. The amount of woodfuel used is about 2.5 million - 4 million cubic metres annually. In 1984 the tobacco industry used about 30 000 m3 of woodfuel. Up to 1990 Rokel Leaf Tobacco Development Company consumed nearly 90 000 m3 of woodfuel. The total amount of woodfuel consumed in the country was estimated by the central statistics office with an assumed per capita consumption of about 0.8 m3 per annum.
The writer used the national population census figures in 1985 (the base year) and a population growth of 2.31% per annum to determine woodfuel demand in the Western Area of Sierra Leone. In that study (Conteh, 1997) the per capita consumption was the unknown. The following were the findings for the woodfuel demand in the Western Area of Sierra Leone in 1996:
Household firewood Wood for household charcoal production Non-household firewood Wood for non-household charcoal production Total Demand Average consumption of woodfuel Projected demand in 2006 |
294 271.99 m3 78 377.53 m3 186.82 m3 1 450.39 m3 374 286.73 m3 0.53 3/cap/annum 474 521.19 m3 |
Assumptions
National population in 1985 was 3 583 000;
National woodfuel consumption per head assumed to be the same as that for the Western Area of Sierra Leone at 0.53 m3;
Growth rate of national population is 2.31%.
Present consumption of woodfuel in Sierra Leone 2 614 423.05 m3.
Principal non-wood forest products
Bushmeat (mainly antelopes and monkeys) is the most important NWFP (Davies 1987). Other products include rattan canes and various fibres (e.g. Kapok), latex (e.g. Hevea brasiliensis), tannins (e.g. rizophora sp.), edible oils (e.g. Elaeis guineensis) and dyeings (Kingston 1986, Angoran 1995, Loyche & amadou 1989). Shrimp, Oysters and Molluscs are animal products exploited in the mangrove forests (Loyche and Amadou 1989).
In Sierra Leone, on fifth of the farmers consider off-farm activities (e.g. oil palm processing, palm wine tapping, hunting) as the important occupation in terms of labour input and benefits for the household (Falconer 1990: 69).
A recent study found that the greater part of locally used NWFP came not from the forest but from fallow or farm bushes (Arnold 1995: 112).
Description of important NWFP:
Vegetal food: The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is probably the most widely exploited forest species in West Africa, including Sierra Leone. Fruits and kernels are used as edible oil and the sap is consumed as wine and alcohol. These palm products account for 14% of the total energy intake. 96% of rural household consume palm oil while 69% consume palm kernels (Falconer 1990: 69). Another study concludes that 60% of the farm households process palm fruits and kernels for sale (Arnold 1995). However, most of the oil palms are growing on farmlands outside the forestland only a negligible proportion is obtained from the forests.
Medicinal plants: Medicinal plants are the most commonly used treatments. According to Falconer (1990), some 70 medicinal plants were identified in a village. These medicinal plants were said to be used by traditional healers and villagers.
The freshly removed bark of Dichrostachys glomerata has been used as a snake repellent in the Tonkolili District of Sierra Leone.
Arnold (1995) reported that 214 medicinal plants were used in some other village.
Utensils, handicrafts, construction materials: Fibres are important raw materials for the production of baskets, mats and hats. It is estimated that basketry accounts for 27.3% of all manufacturing small-scale forest based businesses (Chipeta 1995).
Exudates: Tannins have been utilized by the leather industry and for the preservation of fishing nets since colonial times. The use of synthetic substitutes have resulted in a decrease in the use of tannins by fisher-folks in Sierra Leone.
Bushmeat: About 55% of the Sierra Leonean population consume bushmeat, which is considered to be the most common source of animal protein. However, since wildlife has become scarce in all regions, it is less regularly consumed. In spite of its scarcity it is still available in most rural and urban markets (Falconer 1990) The moist tropical zone of West Africa has lead to a traditional reliance on fish and bushmeat as source of animal protein because of the unfavourable conditions for cattle and other livestock (Davies 1987). Techniques used for harvesting bushmeat are hunting with dogs, shooting with guns and setting traps.
Hunting is increasingly carried out for economic gain rather than food. Bushmeat used to be exported to Liberia before the civil war. During the dry season bushmeat could be smoked. More than 10 to 30 tons of smoked bushmeat were transported out of Sierra Leone to Liberia each month. The economic pressure to hunt bushmeat for export resulted in commercial gangs to carry out systematic hunting in areas all over the country.
Other edible animal products: Oysters, shrimp and molluscs are caught in mangroves. Shrimp is also caught outside the mangrove forest but depends on mangroves for its regeneration. Oysters (Crassastrea tulipa) are collected by women inside the mangroves from the aerial roots of Rizophora sp. since collection is done by cutting the roots of the trees, ecological impacts can be suspected.
FOREST POLICY, LEGISLATION AND INSTITUTIONS
The Sierra Leone Government's forest policy recognizes the extent and seriousness of the forest destruction which has occurred and the fact this process has accelerated over the last 10 years. The subsequent reduced productivity of both the high forest and the bush fallow and the accompanying problems for soil and water conservation, have diminished the welfare of particularly the rural people, and can be expected to further worsen their lives in the future unless the rate of forest destruction can be first restrained and then reversed.
Forest management law and policy
As a fundamental principle, the Government is committed to promote sustained yield management in which the yield of multiple benefits from the forest equals or preferably, is less than the rate at which the forests are capable of producing those benefits. It is the government's ideal to manage or promote the management of all these forest benefits so that one is not neglected in favour of another and the best combination is sought for every forest-type throughout the country.
The passage of the Forestry Act No. 7 of July 1988, with its attendant schedule of Regulations of December 1990, was a positive milestone but it could not of itself reform the forestry sector. Its effectiveness depends on the permanent presence of human and financial resources to implement its provisions. In other words, the Forestry institution must be strengthened.
The policy framework to address issues of deforestation, protection of forests from wildfire and protection of wildlife from over-harvesting exists because Sierra Leone is a signatory to the following conventions:
the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES),
the Convention on Biodiversity,
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention),
the Convention on Climate Change.
For the management of these specific actions the Government focuses on:
promoting and encouraging the protection of forests, regardless of ownership, from wildfire, insects and disease;
the acquisition of scientific knowledge on the management of forest and wildlife, and on the improved utilization of wood products and the conservation of wood energy by the introduction of fuel-efficient stoves e.g. the Mud Stove programme and alternative energy sources,
encouraging the productive management of private forestlands, community forests through appropriate incentives (e.g. tax incentives) and technical and financial assistance,
the adoption and enforcement of strong national Wildlife Conservation Act, 1972. The Conservation Society of Sierra Leone was the first NGO that emerged as a notable partner in the development and protection of our wildlife resources; and
the acquisition and management of public lands for both commodity and amenity uses and values. The public policy framework has a strong cooperation element among national and private sector interests to achieve common objectives or goals.
The GOSL in its Green Revolution Policy (1987) recognized the land degradation problem and its deleterious effects on production of food, fibre and water; and the need for reversing this degradation trend through improved sustainable management systems. The current forest policy addresses the need for environmental protection of the natural resources and for inclusion of watershed programmes. The Government, through the approval of the TFAP, has committed the Forestry Division to include watershed management and environmental protection of renewable natural resources as part of its development programme. The State Land Conservation Act, 1987, the bauxite Mineral Prospecting and Mining Supplementary Agreement (1987) (Ratification) Act, 1988 and the two Acts mentioned earlier in this section directly or indirectly address watershed management.
Investment in forestry and forest products
The economic agents in the Forestry sector are the following:
logging firms,
pit sawyers,
sawmillers,
boat builders,
timber stores managers,
carpentry and joinery workshops,
firewood collectors and sellers,
charcoal burners,
mangrove wood cutters,
wood carvers,
local tanneries for leather work,
local salt producers (boiling brine with firewood).
In monetary terms and indirect benefits, the forest resource is a significant contributor to the national economy. Unfortunately inadequate budgetary allocations are made to the Forestry Division, which has jurisdiction over 8% of the land area of the country. For example in 1995/96 these amounted to 123 million leones (US$132 000 equivalent at an exchange rate of 930 leones/US$). 80% of this was allocated for salaries. As can be seen from the tables below, the Forestry Division relied on a minimum of 95 percent dependency on donor support so as to carry out its mandate. Foreign aid in the forestry sector has been a catalyst in helping to devise new approaches for dealing with deforestation problems. It has helped create the infrastructural and particularly human institutional framework for forest conservation and the writer is one of the beneficiaries of the Capacity building for National Forestry Action Programme. In 1996/97 foreign donors set aside a total of US$85 537. The programmes which benefited from foreign aid within that period are:-
a. b. c. d. e. |
Mud Stove Programme Gola Rain Forest Conservation Wildlife and National Park Development Mountain Rural Extension Tropical (National) Park Development |
36 200 000 20 650 000 17 150 000 3 550 000 2 000 000 |
TOTAL |
79 550 000 |
It is hoped that the Forestry Division will continue to benefit from such foreign aid and that the forest conservation programme will succeed as long as there is a sustained combination of national government effort and political commitment. This will definitely trigger an accelerated and spontaneous response from local farmers, communities and the private sector, for larger-scale, self-sustaining forestry programmes in the country.
Table 5: Budgetary estimates 1995/96 - government funds
|
Particulars |
General Administration and support services |
Management and Wildlife Conservation Part I |
Management & Wildlife Conserv. Part II |
Total |
Personnel, inc. salaries Other recurrent exp. Capital |
4 633 478 10 122 900 1 050 000 |
59 232 681 8 088 900 360 000 |
32 960 850 6 578 200 200 000 |
96 827 009 24 790 000 1 610 000 |
Total |
15 806 378 |
67 681 581 |
39 739 050 |
123 227 009 |
Table 6: Budgetary estimates 1995/96 - development/donor funds
Details of Development Estimates - Cash grants |
Donor |
Amount |
% of Total Budget of Forestry Division |
National Forestry Action Plan wildlife & National Park Development, Kenema- Gola Rain Forest Conservation, Kamakwei Chimpanzee Rehabilitation |
UNDP/FAO UK ODA (suspended) Birdlife International E C |
1 308 120 500 771 389 000 24 345 000 150 936 000 |
55 33 1 6 |
Total |
2 254 790 500 |
95 |
As a forestry statistics national and international network focal point, the Forestry Planning Unit would be much more functional if provided with the requisite information gadgets or logistic support. In this regard, its capacity in terms of human, physical and financial resources should be strengthened.
The data on the non-wood forest products sector is scanty. The Forestry Division should therefore take the necessary steps to address this issue.
The Forestry Division would like to have their forest data stored in a computerized, stand by stand record system that would contain details of forest areas, tree species, pruning treatment, thinning treatment, most recent measurement of stocking, basal area and height. The latter would be updated at any time by linkage to realistic and user-friendly growth models. As at now, the Forestry Planning Unit (FPU) is handicapped in these modern tools. It is hoped the FPU will be provided with means of transport to enhance data capture especially in sample plots; computers and their accessories to facilitate data processing, storage and retrieval for dissemination to consumers.
Angoran, A.O.A. 1995 - Capacity Building for the National Forestry Action Programme. The forestry revenue system in Sierra Leone. Department of Agriculture and Forestry, FAO, Rome
Arnold, J.E.M. 1995 - Socio-economic benefits and issues in NWFP use in FAO (Ed). Report on the International Expert Consultation on NWFP. Non-wood forest products series No.3 Rome
Chipeta, M.E. 1995 -Making NWFP Programmes succeed: Lessons from small-scale forest-based enterprises. In: FAO (Ed.): Report of the international expert consultation on NWFP. Non-wood forest products series No. 3 Rome.
Chong, P.W. 1987. Proposed Management and integrated utilization of mangrove resources in Sierra Leone. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, FAO Freetown.
Conteh, A-A, F, 1997. Woodfuel demand and strategy for supply in the Western Area of Sierra Leone. MSc Thesis, University of Stellenbosch.
Davies, A.G. 1987. The Gola Forest Reserves, Sierra Leone, Wildlife Conservation and forest management, IUCN Tropical Forest Programme, Gland.
Falconer, J. 1990. The Major significance of minor forest products. The local use and value of forests in the West African Humid Forest Zones. FAO, Rome.
Kingston, B. 1986. Sierra Leone. A Forestry Action Plan for Sierra Leone. Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, FAO, Freetown.
Loyche, M; C.L. Amadou. 1989. Proposed Management Plan for the Mangrove area along Bunce river. Part 1: Lower Allen Town Mangrove area 1989 - 1998. Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Forestry, FAO. Freetown.
